 Evidence – “ supporting material known or discovered, but not created by the advocate.” (Wilbanks, Church)  The minor premise of the classical logical model  The grounds or data of the Toulmin model

 Facts: descriptions of events, objects, persons, or places which are empirically verifiable (Wilbanks and Church)  Empirically verifiable means they could be confirmed through observation.  Observation could be through looking, measuring or using scientific instruments to observe something.  This also means it is repeatable in experimentation.

 Statistics: A particular kind of factual evidence, which consists of quantified descriptions of events, objects, persons, places or other phenomena. (Wilbanks and Church)  How much, how big, how many, how often, etc…  Can indicate relationships, trends and changes.

 Good statistics are based on more than guessing  Good statistics are based on clear, reasonable definitions.  Good statistics are based on clear, reasonable measures.  Good statistics are based on good samples.

 Examples: descriptions of individual events, objects, persons, or places (Wilbanks and Church)  Hypothetical examples should not be used as evidence to support a claim  Literal examples should be used instead: events that really happened, and can be in the form of brief stories.

 Testimony: authoritative opinion evidence that interprets or judges events, objects, persons, or places (Wilbanks and Church)  Expert testimony is best – coming from someone who is an expert in the field  Can be in quotations or paraphrased  Interpretive testimony: evidence that describes, analyzes or explains and object, event, person or place (Wilbanks and Church)  Judgment testimony: presents a determination of the value of the event, person, object or place

 Higher quality evidence makes a stronger argument  Primary evidence vs. Secondary Evidence  Primary evidence: comes from the source closest to its actual happening, and a source with first hand information  Secondary evidence: comes from a source at least one step away from the actual happening, with secondhand information  A newspaper who reports on a research finding is a secondary source

 Expert evidence comes from a source who is experienced and knowledgeable in a subject  Lay evidence comes from a source who is neither experienced nor knowledgeable in the area of discussion

 Casual evidence is evidence that naturally occurs without anyone trying to create it as evidence. Ex. Fossils, geography  Created evidence is something purposely recorded for future use.  Ex. Photos, medical records, grades  This type of evidence depends on the circumstances for judgment.

 Source Credibility: examines whether the source of the information has background, knowledge, expertise, and opportunity to be relied on.  Source evidence can be a person or an organization  Source can be primary or secondary  Source can be expert or lay  Also needed for credibility is trustworthiness

 Whether the source of evidence has any self- interests that could distort perception or reports.  Does the bias affect the value of the evidence you get from the source?  Does the source profit or personally gain from others accepting a particular viewpoint?  Is there a cultural bias?

 Considers whether the evidence came from an appropriate time period for the conclusion.  In most cases, recent information is better than old information.  Newer evidence is able to build on older evidence, extending and improving it.  It can also correct mistakes of older evidence.  Older evidence is good if it is a primary source, ex. Historical documents

 There are no overt or subtle contradictions in the source of evidence.  In other words, the source doesn’t say one thing in one place, and something else in another.  Examples: inconsistencies (flip-floppers) in political campaigns

 Does the evidence provide enough information for a critical thinker to accept?  The more complete the evidence the stronger the argument.  Example: scientist explains how data was gathered, how experiment was done in detail  Completeness includes citing where the information came from in detail and the qualifications of the source

 Also referred to as external consistency  Corroboration asks whether other qualified sources agree with this source of evidence.  Such consensus among qualified people provides a reason to have more faith in what the source says.  Example: Movie advertisers quote praise from several critics.

 Level 1: assertion - The arguer says that some evidence is true without any verification.  Level 2: Judicial notice / common knowledge – when all parties agree to a fact, so there is no need to provide testimony to support it.  Level 3: Lay opinion – reasoned opinion by those people outside an area of expertise  Level 4: Expert opinion / Consensus of Lay opinion – the reasoned opinion of someone about a subject within their field of expertise.

 Level 5: Empirical study / consensus of Expert opinion  Empirical study: well designed observational research. Such as a scientific experiment, a survey, or some other observable data.  Consensus of Expert opinion: the agreement of people who are experts in their field  Level 6: Consensus of studies – When there is agreement amongst several well designed research studies.

 Must be in MLA or APA format 