familia Caesaris Imperial Slaves and Freedmen/women

Review: levels of freed Review: levels of freed freed with full citizenship – formal legal manumission; citizen status of owner freed with full citizenship – formal legal manumission; citizen status of owner Latini Iuniani – Iunian Latins (informally manumitted or formally manumitted, owner’s status Latin Latini Iuniani – Iunian Latins (informally manumitted or formally manumitted, owner’s status Latin dediticii - freed who belong to infames; could never become Roman citizens dediticii - freed who belong to infames; could never become Roman citizens

Similar Hierarchy among slaves Different status groups among slaves Different status groups among slaves Slaves with free masters Slaves with free masters Slave vicarii – with slave masters Slave vicarii – with slave masters Legal and social status of master (Latin, citizen, freeborn, freed) Legal and social status of master (Latin, citizen, freeborn, freed) Ranged from Imperial slaves with highest status to penal slaves in mines with lowest status Ranged from Imperial slaves with highest status to penal slaves in mines with lowest status

Familia Caesaris Most important group of slaves and ex-slaves in early Empire Most important group of slaves and ex-slaves in early Empire Present over long period of time - from Augustus – early 3 rd century (epigraphic evidence ceases) Present over long period of time - from Augustus – early 3 rd century (epigraphic evidence ceases) Each emperor inherited ownership of slaves and patronal rights over ex-slaves of predecessor Each emperor inherited ownership of slaves and patronal rights over ex-slaves of predecessor Imperial Slaves Imperial Slaves Public Slaves Public Slaves

Our sources Well evidenced by inscriptions Well evidenced by inscriptions some careers of freedmen can be traced over several reigns following that of manumitting emperor some careers of freedmen can be traced over several reigns following that of manumitting emperor Longest career we have evidence of: the father of Claudius Etruscus, from reign of Tiberius to Domitian Longest career we have evidence of: the father of Claudius Etruscus, from reign of Tiberius to Domitian

Career of imperial slave to imperial freedman procurator A certain C. Iulius Aug. L. Samius was freed by Gaius and held a procuratorial post under Claudius and Nero A certain C. Iulius Aug. L. Samius was freed by Gaius and held a procuratorial post under Claudius and Nero

The evolution of the Familia Caesaries Republican period: nobility held annual magistracies; used own private familia as staff (slaves and freed) for their office; no public office buildings as we have today Republican period: nobility held annual magistracies; used own private familia as staff (slaves and freed) for their office; no public office buildings as we have today Blurred boundaries between public and domestic sphere; Blurred boundaries between public and domestic sphere; Domestic – not as private as modern concept; the domus of an aristocrat formed part of his public persona Domestic – not as private as modern concept; the domus of an aristocrat formed part of his public persona

The evidence - nomenclature Imperial slaves and freed easy to identify Imperial slaves and freed easy to identify Ordinary slaves had one single name Ordinary slaves had one single name Imperial slaves added their status to their slave name: Imperial slaves added their status to their slave name: Caes(aris) ser(vus) or Aug(usti) vern(a) or Aug(usti) or Caes(aris) Caes(aris) ser(vus) or Aug(usti) vern(a) or Aug(usti) or Caes(aris) i.e. Onesimus Caes(aris) ser(vus) i.e. Onesimus Caes(aris) ser(vus)

The emperor and his familia When single ruler emerged after civil wars (Augustus) existing Republican system of administration continued When single ruler emerged after civil wars (Augustus) existing Republican system of administration continued Emperors ruled with help of what was formally their private household Emperors ruled with help of what was formally their private household In 1 st century AD – familia Caesaris gradually moved away from Republican model In 1 st century AD – familia Caesaris gradually moved away from Republican model At and of Julio-Claudian period - system had become a structure in itself; At and of Julio-Claudian period - system had become a structure in itself; The Imperial freedmen continued in posts from one emperor to the next The Imperial freedmen continued in posts from one emperor to the next See development of complex system: titles and dedicated task – but no administrative departments as in modern sense - still in many ways an aristocratic household See development of complex system: titles and dedicated task – but no administrative departments as in modern sense - still in many ways an aristocratic household Domestic framework continued within imperial administration – resulted in emperor’s freedmen having unique opportunity to influence public affairs – assisted emperor with his correspondence, accounts, and all other affairs, private and public Domestic framework continued within imperial administration – resulted in emperor’s freedmen having unique opportunity to influence public affairs – assisted emperor with his correspondence, accounts, and all other affairs, private and public

Imperial freedmen and their nomenclature Received tria nomina of a Roman citizen: praenomen, nomen (gentilicum), cognomen Received tria nomina of a Roman citizen: praenomen, nomen (gentilicum), cognomen Then added status: Aug(usti) lib(ertus) or Aug(usti) l(ibertus). Then added status: Aug(usti) lib(ertus) or Aug(usti) l(ibertus). Example: Ti. Claudius Aug. l. Onesimus Example: Ti. Claudius Aug. l. Onesimus T. Flavius Aug. lib. Onesimus T. Flavius Aug. lib. Onesimus M. Ulpius Aug. lib. Onesimus M. Ulpius Aug. lib. Onesimus Imperials freedmen/women very proud of status and continued to display it even after most private freed and citizens gave up to display status on funerary inscriptions – end of first century AD Imperials freedmen/women very proud of status and continued to display it even after most private freed and citizens gave up to display status on funerary inscriptions – end of first century AD

Hierarchy within familia Caesaris Not a homogeneous group Not a homogeneous group Spread throughout the Empire Spread throughout the Empire Great variety of opportunities for professional and social advancement Great variety of opportunities for professional and social advancement Vast status differences depending on branch of imperial service, professional grade, rate of advancement achieved in service Vast status differences depending on branch of imperial service, professional grade, rate of advancement achieved in service Division into familia urbana and familia rustica does not apply to familia Caesaris Division into familia urbana and familia rustica does not apply to familia Caesaris

The evidence - nomenclature Imperial slaves and freed easy to identify by nomenclature Imperial slaves and freed easy to identify by nomenclature Ordinary slaves had one single name Ordinary slaves had one single name Imperial slaves added their status to their slave name: Imperial slaves added their status to their slave name: Caes(aris) ser(vus) or Aug(usti) vern(a) or Aug(usti) or Caes(aris) Caes(aris) ser(vus) or Aug(usti) vern(a) or Aug(usti) or Caes(aris) i.e. Onesimus Caes(aris) ser(vus) i.e. Onesimus Caes(aris) ser(vus)

Imperial freedmen At manumission received tria nomina of a Roman citizen: praenomen, nomen (gentilicum), cognomen At manumission received tria nomina of a Roman citizen: praenomen, nomen (gentilicum), cognomen Then added status: Aug(usti) lib(ertus) or Aug(usti) l(ibertus). Then added status: Aug(usti) lib(ertus) or Aug(usti) l(ibertus). Example: Ti. Claudius Aug. l. Onesimus Example: Ti. Claudius Aug. l. Onesimus T. Flavius Aug. lib. Onesimus T. Flavius Aug. lib. Onesimus M. Ulpius Aug. lib. Onesimus M. Ulpius Aug. lib. Onesimus Imperials freedmen/women very proud of status and continued to display it even after most private freed and citizens gave up to display status on funerary inscriptions – end of first century AD Imperials freedmen/women very proud of status and continued to display it even after most private freed and citizens gave up to display status on funerary inscriptions – end of first century AD

Hierarchy within familia Caesaris Not a homogeneous group Not a homogeneous group Spread throughout the Empire Spread throughout the Empire Great variety of opportunities for professional and social advancement Great variety of opportunities for professional and social advancement Vast status differences depending on branch of imperial service, professional grade, rate of advancement achieved in service Vast status differences depending on branch of imperial service, professional grade, rate of advancement achieved in service Division into familia urbana and familia rustica does not apply to familia Caesaris Division into familia urbana and familia rustica does not apply to familia Caesaris

Divisions of Familia Caesaris Group A) slaves and freed working in daily maintenance, provisioning, supervision of residence and properties for emperor’s personal upkeep Group A) slaves and freed working in daily maintenance, provisioning, supervision of residence and properties for emperor’s personal upkeep Group B) slaves and freed working in supervising the revenue-producing imperial properties or in financial administrative functions of civil service Group B) slaves and freed working in supervising the revenue-producing imperial properties or in financial administrative functions of civil service

A – domestic group Included staff of Imperial Palace in Rome, palace of the Augusta, other villas in Rome and other Italian towns, Imperial gardens in Rome and elsewhere Included staff of Imperial Palace in Rome, palace of the Augusta, other villas in Rome and other Italian towns, Imperial gardens in Rome and elsewhere

Example of range of duties Little skill required: Custos – guard, aedituus – keeper, Little skill required: Custos – guard, aedituus – keeper, Lectiarius – litter-bearer, Lectiarius – litter-bearer, more responsibilities or skill: topiarius – ornamental gardener more responsibilities or skill: topiarius – ornamental gardener tricliniarchus - in charge of dining room tricliniarchus - in charge of dining room praegustato Imperial taster praegustato Imperial taster archimagiur - head chef archimagiur - head chef and countless more … and countless more …

Influential posts: cubicularius - in charge of bedroom cubicularius - in charge of bedroom ad admissione - both positions controlled access to emperor - had close contact with emperor; had unofficial but uncontrolled influence outside their domestic sphere. ad admissione - both positions controlled access to emperor - had close contact with emperor; had unofficial but uncontrolled influence outside their domestic sphere.

Posts during the Late Empire Ex-slave eunuchs – under absolutist regime Ex-slave eunuchs – under absolutist regime highest positions in palace service - in charge of Imperial bedchamber - were very powerful highest positions in palace service - in charge of Imperial bedchamber - were very powerful The two chief posts: praepositus sacri cubiculi The two chief posts: praepositus sacri cubiculi Primicerius sacri cubiculi Primicerius sacri cubiculi

B Slaves and ex-slaves in the Imperial Administration Wide range of departments – all aspects of receipts and payments of funds under emperor’s control Wide range of departments – all aspects of receipts and payments of funds under emperor’s control Public services: aqueducts, libraries, post, roads, public works and buildings, Public services: aqueducts, libraries, post, roads, public works and buildings, Imperial mines and quarries, the mint Imperial mines and quarries, the mint

Range of positions Wide range Wide range Sub-clerical: pedisequi (foot attendant), costodius (guard), nomenclator, tabellarii, Sub-clerical: pedisequi (foot attendant), costodius (guard), nomenclator, tabellarii, Intermediate clerical grades: adiutor, vicarius, a dispensator, commentarius, tabularius Intermediate clerical grades: adiutor, vicarius, a dispensator, commentarius, tabularius Senior clerical ranks: tabularii a rationibus, proximi Senior clerical ranks: tabularii a rationibus, proximi Senior administrative positions: procurator, a rationibus, ab epitulis, a libellis Senior administrative positions: procurator, a rationibus, ab epitulis, a libellis

Wide range of status Variation in same rank in different departments: example: central finance bureaux of a rationibus to department responsible for minor tax Variation in same rank in different departments: example: central finance bureaux of a rationibus to department responsible for minor tax Other factors, location: head office in Rome had higher rank attached than branch office in province Other factors, location: head office in Rome had higher rank attached than branch office in province

Other Imperial Slaves Working in private commercial and industrial enterprises either on own account: vestifex or vestifica (tailor, dressmaker) Working in private commercial and industrial enterprises either on own account: vestifex or vestifica (tailor, dressmaker) caelator (engraver), argentarius (silver-smith) caelator (engraver), argentarius (silver-smith) Working in emperor’s building projects including supplies of building materials Working in emperor’s building projects including supplies of building materials lapidarii (stonemasons) marmorarii (marble cutters) structures (carpenters) architecti ( master-builders) - lapidarii (stonemasons) marmorarii (marble cutters) structures (carpenters) architecti ( master-builders) -

Recruitment into service Predominantly from within the familia: children of Imperial slaves and freedmen (verna – houseborn slave Predominantly from within the familia: children of Imperial slaves and freedmen (verna – houseborn slave First century AD many also from outside the familia First century AD many also from outside the familia

Marriage and Status High proportion of ‘marriage’ between Imperial slaves and freeborn women High proportion of ‘marriage’ between Imperial slaves and freeborn women S.C. Claudianum 52 AD (framed by Claudius’ freedman Pallas) S.C. Claudianum 52 AD (framed by Claudius’ freedman Pallas) Made an exception to the general legal rule that children born outside legal marriage took status of mother; Made an exception to the general legal rule that children born outside legal marriage took status of mother; children of free women and imperial slaves took status of father - thus would be imperial slaves. children of free women and imperial slaves took status of father - thus would be imperial slaves.

Manumission of Imperial Slaves relatively high chance of manumission for slaves in upper grades of Imperial service relatively high chance of manumission for slaves in upper grades of Imperial service No informal manumission for Imperial slaves No informal manumission for Imperial slaves Emperors interested to get most out of slave and then have manumission purchased by slave from peculium Emperors interested to get most out of slave and then have manumission purchased by slave from peculium Special department created - Fiscus libertatis et peculiorum Special department created - Fiscus libertatis et peculiorum

Higher chance of manumission, but less chance before age 30 Higher chance of manumission, but less chance before age 30 Average age of manumission between 30 – 40 Average age of manumission between 30 – 40 Imperial slaves aimed at manumission as soon as legally possible Imperial slaves aimed at manumission as soon as legally possible Unskilled later manumitted 20% over 40, 15% over 50 Unskilled later manumitted 20% over 40, 15% over 50 In contrast – large proportion of female slaves owned by Imperial freedmen manumitted before 30 (for marriage purpose) In contrast – large proportion of female slaves owned by Imperial freedmen manumitted before 30 (for marriage purpose)

General manumission reviewed: Lex Aelia Sentia AD 4: age requirements – 30 for slave, 20 for owner Lex Aelia Sentia AD 4: age requirements – 30 for slave, 20 for owner Slaves manumitted under 30 became Iunian Latins Slaves manumitted under 30 became Iunian Latins Significant number of exceptions (iusta causa – just cause): blood relationship ) sons, daughters, brothers, sisters, foster relations, paedagogus ; for future services (if slave was over 18); intended marriage Significant number of exceptions (iusta causa – just cause): blood relationship ) sons, daughters, brothers, sisters, foster relations, paedagogus ; for future services (if slave was over 18); intended marriage

Ways for Latins to get full citizenship Augustus: Latins could receive full citizenship on first birthday of first child for themselves and child: anniculi probation Augustus: Latins could receive full citizenship on first birthday of first child for themselves and child: anniculi probation Subsequent emperors added more options: (Ulpian iii) services to the state in emergencies: military service (rare), providing shipping for transport of corn, supply of bread, construction of buildings (i.e. after great fire) Subsequent emperors added more options: (Ulpian iii) services to the state in emergencies: military service (rare), providing shipping for transport of corn, supply of bread, construction of buildings (i.e. after great fire) Vespasian in AD 75 and Hadrian made changes to lex Aelia Sentia Vespasian in AD 75 and Hadrian made changes to lex Aelia Sentia Justinian abolished class of Latins and dediticii, and removed age limit for manumission (Cod. Iust vii.15.2) Justinian abolished class of Latins and dediticii, and removed age limit for manumission (Cod. Iust vii.15.2)

Imperial Civil Service Majority of positions filled by imperial freedmen and slaves Majority of positions filled by imperial freedmen and slaves Upper-level posts used to be filled by senators and equestrians in Republican period Upper-level posts used to be filled by senators and equestrians in Republican period

Imperial Freedmen and their power Did not hold formal powers, influence due to proximity to emperor Did not hold formal powers, influence due to proximity to emperor Loose structure of Familia Caesaris - blurred distinction between personal staff and public administrators; Loose structure of Familia Caesaris - blurred distinction between personal staff and public administrators; Caused much hostility among nobility; Caused much hostility among nobility; Some emperors tried to respond to hostility by attempting to curtail their influence; but have long lists of very powerful freedmen. Some emperors tried to respond to hostility by attempting to curtail their influence; but have long lists of very powerful freedmen. Claudius’ reign proverbial for powerful and extremely wealthy imperial freedmen Claudius’ reign proverbial for powerful and extremely wealthy imperial freedmen Some even extended patronage Some even extended patronage Examples of brothers Felix and Pallas Examples of brothers Felix and Pallas Felix an imperial freedman became governor of Judaea; Felix an imperial freedman became governor of Judaea; When Nero went to Greece, his freedman Helius was left in charge of Italy, etc. When Nero went to Greece, his freedman Helius was left in charge of Italy, etc.

Conclusions – Imperial Slaves and Freedmen/women Very privileged group among slaves Very privileged group among slaves Often imperial slaves and freed had higher social and economic status than humble free-born Roman citizens Often imperial slaves and freed had higher social and economic status than humble free-born Roman citizens Exceptional status can be seen in practice of marriage between Imperial slaves and free-born women Exceptional status can be seen in practice of marriage between Imperial slaves and free-born women Law responded to this practice by changing natural law of slavery (slave-children as taking status of mother) to children of such union to take slave status of father. Law responded to this practice by changing natural law of slavery (slave-children as taking status of mother) to children of such union to take slave status of father.

Questions What were the two main grades of Imperial Slaves? How could Latins gain full citizenship? Fiscus libertatis et peculiorum What was the Fiscus libertatis et peculiorum