 Daily quizzes  Understand the material  Read the text  Study frequently for short periods  Find a study buddy

Classroom Etiquette and rules: Turn off cell phones ! No chewing gums Be considerate of others: Take out what you bring in. Be ontime, No late more than 5-10m Talk to me, NOT your neighbor! No absence from exams without prior excuse Do not ask for grades over the phone or internet.

 Use Professional ethics  NO:  Plagiarism  Cheating  Allowing others to copy from you  Penalties can be severe !!

 Pathology – focus on physical changes in diseased organs and tissues  Pathophysiology – abnormal functioning of diseased organs and how it applies to medical treatment and patient care

Disease – loss of homeostasis, or when physical or mental capacities cannot be fully utilized (interuption, cessation or disorder in the function of an organ or system). Etiology = cause of the disease When the etiology is unknown, the disease is said to be idiopathic.

 Genetic disease– genes are responsible for a structural or functional defect  Congenital disease– genetic information is intact, but the intrauterine environment interferes with normal development  Acquired disease – disease is caused by factors encountered after birth (biological agents, physical forces, and chemical agents)

Clinical manifestations – indications that the person is sick Symptoms – unobservable effects of a disease reported by the patient Signs – observable or measurable traits Syndrome - a characteristic combination of signs and symptoms associated with a particular disease.

Diagnosis – identification of the specific disease Therapy – the treatment of the disease to either effect a cure or reduce the patient’s signs and symptoms Prognosis – prediction of a disease’s outcome

The cell is the building block of each living organism. Each cell is a self-contained system that undergoes the functions of energy production and usage, respiration, reproduction, and excretion

 Reproduction  Growth  Differentiation  Respiration  Secretion  Excretion  Organization  Metabolism ◦ Catabolism ◦ Anabolism  Responsiveness ◦ Conductivity  Movement Cellular Functions

 All cells composed internally of cytoplasm and nucleus, and surrounded externally by cell membrane.  The cytoplasm includes everything inside the cell but outside the nucleus  mitochondria ;energy  endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes; protein synthesys  Golgi apparatus; secretion of proteins synthesized on the ribosomes.  lysosomes ; digestive enzymes.  Cytoskeleton. Cell; continued

 Amino Acids -> Proteins ◦ Structure & Function  Nucleic Acids -> DNA / RNA ◦ Information Transmission, energy storage  Simple Sugars -> Polysaccharides ◦ Energy Sources, structure  Fatty Acids -> Lipids ◦ Structure, Energy Source

Boundary – Cell membrane (plasma membrane) Composed of lipid molecules in bilayer Phospholipids have hydrophobic tail Phospholipids have hydrophilic heads Also contains embedded proteins proteins are important for cell-cell communication: receptors for hormones cell recognition also important for metabolic processes inside the cell: channels pumps enzymes

 Phospholipid bilayer  Membrane proteins  Cytoplasm  Nucleus  Ribosomes  Mitochondria  Endoplasmic Riticulum  Golgi Apparatus  Lysosomes

Generic Eukaryotic Cell Generic Cell

Cell Membrane

Cytoplasm Cytosol – aqueous gel-like medium Important metabolic processes occur here Organelles – membrane bound structures Membranes provide compartments for separation of chemical reactions

 large, membrane-bound organelle that contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material of the cell.  the DNA is folded up inside the nucleus

 Human Genome as a Book  There are 23 chapters, called CHROMOSOMES  Each chapter contains several thousand stories, called GENES  Each story is made up of paragraphs, called EXONS  Each story is interrupted by advertisements called INTRONS  Each paragraph is made up of words, called CODONS.  Each word is written in letters called BASES

Cells change to adapt to their environment Atrophy = shrinkage = decrease in cell size. Due to : decreased use decreased blood supply decreased nutrition Of tissues or organs may be due to cell shrinkage or due to cell death.

 Cellular Adaptation  Mechanisms of Cell Injury  Manifestations of Cell Injury  Cellular Death

Cellular Adaptation  Atrophy  Hypertrophy  Hyperplasia  Dysplasia  Metaplasia

 Size of organelles  Size of organellesAtrophyAtrophy  Workload (or disease state)  Workload (or disease state)  Size of organelles  Size of organelles  Energy Usage  Efficiency -OR-  Efficiency -OR-  Functionality in disease state  Functionality in disease state

 Size  # of organelles  Size  # of organelles  Size  # of organelles  Size  # of organelles HypertrophyHypertrophy  Workload (or disease state)  Workload (or disease state)  contractility  ability to meet demands! -OR-  ability to meet demands! -OR-  Functionality in disease state  Functionality in disease state

 rate of cell division  rate of cell divisionHyperplasiaHyperplasia  Workload Physiological state  Workload Physiological state  functionality  ability to meet demands!...  ability to meet demands!... 2 types: Compensatory & Hormonal 2 types: Compensatory & Hormonal  tissue size by  # of cells

Hyperplastic endometrium

DysplasiaDysplasia PathologicalPathological Normal Cells Epithelial Tissue Abnormal Shape & Size Mutation

Cerical Dysplasia Normal Tissue Abnormal Tissue

MetaplasiaMetaplasia PathologicalPathological Normal Cells Ex: Cigarette Smoking AbnormalCells Replacement

Mechanisms of Injury  Hypoxic  Chemical  Structural ◦ (trauma…tons next semester!)  Infectious  Immunologic / Inflammatory

Hypoxic Injury  Atmospheric Oxygen Loss of Hb  Hb function (CO)  erythropoiesis  Respiratory Function  Cardiovascular Function Most Common Cause of Cellular Injury! Most Common Cause of Cellular Injury!

Hypoxic Injury (pathway 1) Loss of Phospholipids Loss of Phospholipids Membrane Damage Membrane Damage Release of Enzymes Release of Enzymes Elevated“Markers” ex CK, CKMB Elevated“Markers”

Hypertrophy = increase in cell size We'll see this in heart, kidney (and others) w/ pathology NOT due to increased cell volume or fluid Rather, due to increased protein synthesis within the cell, or decreased protein breakdown Result is increased protein in organelles Hyperplasia = increase in cell number Due to increased cell division Uterus and breast tissue Parathyroid gland in kidney failure Liver (compensatory hyperplasia)

Metaplasia = replacement of one cell type with another Reversible An example: ciliated columnar epithelium replaced by stratified squamous epithelium

Dysplasia = change in cell resulting in abnormal cell size, shape or organization We'll see this in respiratory tract, cervix w/ pathology In mature cells only Immature cells would be expected to change in size, shape as they grow and mature Considered a reversible change Neoplasia = associated with a malignant tumor

 Buildup of substances the cell can’t use or dispose of. ◦ Normal body substances ◦ Abnormal products from inside the body (inborn errors of metabolism) ◦ Substances from outside the body (transient or permanent)

 Causes of cell injury:  Deficiency – lack of a substance necessary to the cell  Intoxication or poisoning – presence of a toxin or substance that interferes with cell functioning  Trauma – physical injury and loss of cell’s structural integrity

Deficiencies: Deficiency in oxygen most important

Hypoxia = deficiency in oxygen at cell Due to : Decreased oxygen in air Decreased hemoglobin or decreased oxygen transported to cells Diseases of the respiratory and/or cardiovascular system

Important to cell because of oxidative phosphorylation, which results in the production of ATP Oxidative: need oxygen to produce ATP ATP: needed by cell for metabolism, cell life

Cellular response to hypoxia Decreased mitochondrial reactions  decreased ATP produced  decreased energy Ion pumps cease, so can't regulate ions into/out of cell (ATP needed for this) Can't pump Na + and water out of cell, so get cell swelling  organelle swelling  cell death

Ischemia is inadequate blood supply to a cell or tissue. Ischemia can cause hypoxia.

Intoxication (or introduction of toxins into the cell) Effect on cell depends on toxin and on cell Some examples: Lead -- injures nervous system CO -- deprives body of oxygen Ethanol -- effects central nervous system

Trauma -- physical disruption of cells Ex: abrasion, cutting, burns, microorganisms etc.

Free radicals : uncharged atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron Formed by radiation, redox reactions, chemicals Atom is unstable needs to gain or lose an electron can alter chemical bonds in proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids can cause chain reaction in cell

 “fallen apart”  Regulated cell death  During development  Worn out cells  Diseased cells (tumor suppressor p53 gene, natural killer or Tc cells)

 Messy cell death  Initiates inflammation  Gangrene – large mass of tissue undergoes necrosis

Infections agents Microorganisms can invade and harm cells Cell injury can have effects on the entire body Examples: fever, pain, increased heart rate

 Programmed change theories  Error theories  Telomerase