Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Infants, Children, and Adolescents Chapter 7 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Psychodynamic Stages Age Erikson’s Stage First Year Basic Trust versusMistrust Second Year Autonomyversus Shame and Doubt

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Emotional Development Emotions play powerful roles in social relationships, exploration of environment, and discovery of self. Energize development Become more varied, complex with age In children, facial expressions provide best clues to emotions. © Tasosk | Dreamstime.comTasoskDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Interpreting Emotions  Assuming a close correspondence between a pattern of behavior and an emotional state can lead to error.  Emotional expressions are flexibly organized and vary with the child’s developing capacities, goals, and context.  Cues can be vocal, facial, gestural, and situational. © Jarenwicklund | Dreamstime.comJarenwicklundDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. First Appearance of Basic Emotions Happiness  Smile ‒ from birth  Social smile ‒ 6 to 10 weeks  Laugh ‒ 3 to 4 months Anger  General distress ‒ from birth  Anger ‒ 4 to 6 months Sadness  Distress to “still face” ‒ 2 to 7 months Fear  First fears ‒ 6 to 12 months  Stranger anxiety ‒ 8 to 12 months

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Understanding Emotions of Others Emotional contagion Early infancy Recognize others’ facial expressions From 5 months Social referencing © Jaroslaw Grudzinski | Dreamstime.comJaroslaw GrudzinskiDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Conscious Emotions Shame Shame Embarrassment Embarrassment Guilt Guilt Envy Envy Pride Pride Emerge middle of second year Need adult instruction about when to feel them © Yhca | Dreamstime.comYhcaDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Emotional Self-Regulation Effortful control improves gradually, with the development of the cerebral cortex and the assistance of caregivers. Young infants rely on caregivers to soothe them. Self-regulation grows over the first year, with brain development. In the second year, growth in representation and language leads to new ways of regulating emotions. Caregivers contribute to child’s self-regulation style.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Structure of Temperament  Easy – 40%  Difficult – 10%  Slow-to-warm-up – 15%  Unclassified – 35% © Susy56 | Dreamstime.comSusy56Dreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Rothbart’s Model of Temperament Table 7.1

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Biological Development of Shyness and Sociability Inhibited, Shy  React negatively, withdraw from new stimuli  High heart rates, stress hormones, and stress symptoms  Higher right hemisphere frontal cortex activity Uninhibited, Sociable  React positively, approach new stimuli  Low heart rates, stress hormones, and stress symptoms  Higher left hemisphere frontal cortex activity

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Stability of Temperament Temperament develops with age. Long-term prediction best achieved after age 3 Long-term prediction best achieved after age 3 Development of prefrontal cortex (impulse suppression) rapid in early preschool years Development of prefrontal cortex (impulse suppression) rapid in early preschool years Overall, extreme changes are unlikely. Overall, extreme changes are unlikely. Many factors influence temperament, including the biological systems on which temperament is based, effortful control, and parenting experiences.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Genetics and Environment in Temperament Genetic Influences  Responsible for about half of individual differences  Ethnicity, gender Environmental Influences  Cultural caregiving styles  Boys and girls treated differently  Parents emphasize sibling differences Goodness-of-Fit  Combines genetics and environment

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Temperament Correlations for Identical and Fraternal Twin Pairs Figure 7.1

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Temperament and Child Rearing Effective parenting also depends on life conditions. Good parental mental health Good parental mental health Marital happiness Marital happiness Favorable economic conditions Favorable economic conditions Cultural values also affect fit between parenting and child temperament. Overall, babies possess unique dispositions that parents must accept.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Correlations Over Time Between Shyness and Adjustment Among Chinese Fourth Graders Figure 7.2

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment 1.Preattachment 2.Attachment in the making 3.Clear-cut attachment  Separation anxiety 4.Formation of a reciprocal relationship © Edgard Rodriguez | Dreamstime.comEdgard RodriguezDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Internal Working Models of Attachment Figure 7.3 Source: Adapted from Johnson, Dweck, & Chen, 2007.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Measuring the Security of Attachment Secure Attachment  Use the parents as a secure base  Actively seek contact with the parent when he or she returns Avoidant Attachment  Seem unresponsive to the parent  Slow to greet the parent upon reunion Resistant Attachment  Seek closeness to the parent  Distressed and angry when the parent returns Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment  Pattern reflects the greatest insecurity  At reunion, often show confused, contradictory behaviors

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Measuring the Security of Attachment  Secure – 60%  Avoidant – 15%  Resistant – 10%  Disorganized/ disoriented – 15% disoriented – 15% © Flashon Studio | Dreamstime.comFlashon StudioDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Episodes in the Strange Situation Table 7.2

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Attachment Q-Sort Suitable method for children between 1 and 4 years of age Relies on home observations of up to 90 behaviors May better reflect parent – child relationship in everyday life May better reflect parent – child relationship in everyday life Time-consuming method that does not differentiate between types of insecurity

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Cross-Cultural Comparison of Infants’ Reactions in the Strange Situation Figure 7.4

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Factors That Affect Attachment Security Early consistent caregiver Quality of caregiving Sensitive caregiving Interactional synchrony Infant characteristics Family circumstances Parents’ internal working models

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Factors That Affect Attachment in Child Care Attachment quality Family circumstances Quality of child care Combined home and child-care risk factors may affect attachment. Combined home and child-care risk factors may affect attachment. But contribute to higher social skills But contribute to higher social skills Extent of child care

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Multiple Attachments  Fathers  Grandparents  Siblings  Professional caregivers © Hallgerd | Dreamstime.comHallgerdDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Powerful Role of Paternal Warmth in Development  Fathers’ sensitive caregiving and interactional synchrony with infants, like mothers’, predict attachment security.  Fathers often build attachments through play.  Young fathers’ involvement with their children continues to increase each year. © Goldenkb | Dreamstime.comGoldenkbDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Average Time Working Parents Spend with Children under Age 12 Figure 7.5

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Grandparent Primary Caregivers 2.4 million children live in skipped-generation families. Families with grandparents as primary caregivers continue to increase. Families with grandparents as primary caregivers continue to increase. Many grandparents take over during times of stress. Many grandparents take over during times of stress. Grandparent caregivers forge significant attachment relationships with grandchildren in spite of problems. © Barbara Reddoch | Dreamstime.comBarbara ReddochDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Encouraging Affectionate Ties Between Infants and Their Preschool Siblings

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Attachment and Later Development Secure attachment often (but not always) related to positive outcomes in: Preschool Preschool Middle childhood Middle childhood Continuity of caregiving may link infant attachment and later development. Effects of early attachment security are conditional and dependent upon quality of future relationships.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Awareness Beginnings  At birth, infants have a sense of self as a distinct agent, separate from the surrounding world.  Self-awareness is limited. Self-Recognition  Sense of self as object of knowledge and evaluation  Aware of qualities that make self unique at 20 months

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Testing Emerging Self-Awareness in 3-Month-Olds Figure 7.6

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Awareness  At the end of the first year, learn that their own goals frequently conflict with those of others  Empathy emerges and improves through early childhood.  Cultural variations influence emergence of self-awareness behaviors. Figure 7.7

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Control  Effortful control  Capable of compliance between 12 and 18 months  Toddlers assert autonomy by sometimes not complying.  Delay of gratification shows self-control.  Warm, sensitive caregiving increases compliance. © Nick Stubbs | Dreamstime.comNick StubbsDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance and Self-Control  Respond with sensitivity and support.  Give advance notice of change.  Offer many prompts and reminders.  Reinforce self-controlled behavior.  Encourage selective/sustained attention.  Support language development.  Increase rules gradually.