Cognitive Learning Learning that depends on mental activity that is not directly observable Involves such processes as attention, expectation, thinking, and memory

Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps Latent learning is learning that takes place before the subject realizes it and is not immediately reflected in behavior A cognitive map is latent learning stored as a mental image

Insight and Learning Sets Insight is when learning seems to occur in a sudden “flash” as elements of a situation come together Learning sets refer to increasing effectiveness at problem solving through experience, i.e., organisms “learn how to learn”

Bandura's Experiments Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments. Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University

Social Cognitive Theory Learning a behavior and performing it are not the same thing Tenet 1: Response consequences (such as rewards or punishments) influence the likelihood that a person will perform a particular behavior again in a given situation. Note that this principle is also shared by classical behaviorists. Tenet 2: Humans can learn by observing others, in addition to learning by participating in an act personally. Learning by observing others is called vicarious learning. The concept of vicarious learning is not one that would be subscribed to by classical behaviorists. Tenet 3: Individuals are most likely to model behavior observed by others they identify with. Identification with others is a function of the degree to which a person is perceived to be similar to one's self, in addition to the degree of emotional attachment that is felt toward an individual.

Learning by Observing The likelihood of acting on vicarious learning occurs when we see the consequences of other people’s behavior Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment affects the willingness of people to perform behaviors they learned by watching others The person being watched is the model. Hence modeling. (Live models and symbolic models)

Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. Reprinted with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Subiaul et al., Science 305: (2004) © 2004 AAAS.

Applications of Observational Learning Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.

Positive Observational Learning Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects. Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

Imitation Onset Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart. Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants. Child Development, Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk.

Cognitive Learning in Nonhumans Nonhumans are capable of classical and operant conditioning Nonhumans are also capable of latent learning Research has also demonstrated that animals are capable of observational learning

Learning by Observation It is not justhumans, that learn through observing and imitating others. The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward. © Herb Terrace