©1999 Prentice Hall Motivation Chapter 12

©1999 Prentice Hall Motivation Defining motivation. The hungry animal: Motives to eat. The social animal: Motives to love. The erotic animal: Motives for sex. The competent animal: Motives to achieve. Motives, values, and well-being.

©1999 Prentice Hall Defining Motivation A inferred process within a person or animal that causes movement either toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation. Intrinsic motivation The pursuit of activity for its own sake. Extrinsic motivation The pursuit of an activity for external rewards such as money or fame.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Hungry Animal: Motives to Eat The genetics of weight. Culture, psychology, and weight. Weight and health: Body versus culture.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Genetics of Weight Research suggests that heavy people are no more and no less emotionally disturbed than average weight people. Heaviness is not always caused by overeating. Set point The genetically influenced weight range for an individual, maintained by biological mechanisms that regulate food intake, fat reserves and metabolism. Identical twins weigh and gain weight similarly. The complexity of mechanisms governing appetite and weight explains why “appetite suppressing” drugs fail in the long run.

©1999 Prentice Hall Body Weights of Twins Identical twins are more similar in body weight than fraternal Same whether raised together or apart Genetic factors play a large role in body weight

©1999 Prentice Hall Culture, Psychology, and Weight The environment and obesity. Cultural attitudes.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Environment and Obesity Environmental factors related to weight gain: Increased abundance of low-cost, varied high fat meals. The habit of eating high calorie food on the run instead of leisurely meals. The rise in energy saving devices such as remote controls. The speed and conveniences of driving rather than walking or biking. The preference for watching television or videos instead of exercising.

©1999 Prentice Hall Cultural Attitudes In many cultures, where food is a rarer commodity, fat is viewed as a sign of health and affluence in men, sexual desirability in women. While people of all ethnicities and social classes have been getting heavier, the cultural ideal for white women has been getting thinner. The cultural ideal for men has also changed. Muscles used to mean a working class, now muscular bodies symbolize affluence.

©1999 Prentice Hall Weight and Health: Biology versus Culture People from cultures that regard overweight as a sign of health and sexiness are more likely to be obese. People from cultures emphasizing thinness are more likely to have eating disorders. Many with eating disorders reflect an irrational terror of being too fat. Bulimia Anorexia nervosa.

©1999 Prentice Hall Bulimia and Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia An eating disorder characterized by episodes of excessive eating (binges) followed by forced vomiting or use of laxatives (purging). Anorexia Nervosa An eating disorder characterized by fear of being fat, a distorted body image, radically reduced consumption of food, and emaciation.

©1999 Prentice Hall Ideal Body Image Which image is ideal for your sex? Which comes closest to your own body?

©1999 Prentice Hall Influences on Eating Disorders Presence of extremely slim television stars. Genes or set points which conflict with cultural standard. Conflict between desire to achieve and perception of parent’s messages about a “woman’s place.” Increase in male responsiveness to cultural expectations may be related to their desire to be more “manly.”

©1999 Prentice Hall The Social Animal: Motives to Love The psychology of love. The ingredients of love. Attachment theory of love. Gender, culture, and love.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Psychology of Love The need for affiliation The motive to associate with other people, as by seeking friends, companionship, or love. Predictors of love. Proximity Choosing friends and lovers from the set of people who are closest to us. Similarity Choosing friends and lovers who are like us in looks, attitudes, beliefs, personality, and interests.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Ingredients of Love Sternberg’s Triangular theory of love Passion Euphoria and sexual excitement. Intimacy Being free to talk about things, feeling close to and understood by loved ones. Commitment Needing to be with the other person; being loyal. Ideal love involves all three.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Attachment Theory of Love Like infants have attachment styles to their caregivers, adults have attachment styles to their partners. Secure or rarely jealous or worried about being abandoned. Avoidant or distrustful and avoids intimate attachments. Anxious ambivalent or agitated and worried that partner will leave. Adult style is related to infant style.

©1999 Prentice Hall Distribution of attachment style A representative survey of American adults indicated: Securely attached66% Avoidant25% Anxious11%

©1999 Prentice Hall Gender, Culture, and Love Males and females respond similarly to: Love at first sight. Passionate love. Companionate love. Unrequited love. Being the break-up recipient.

©1999 Prentice Hall Gender, Culture, and Love Men and women different in How they express love. Men-doing; women-saying. How they define intimacy Men-hanging out; women-sharing feelings Men and women used to have different goals in choices of partners Men-more romantic; Women-more pragmatic. As more women have become economically self- sufficient, differences have decreased.

©1999 Prentice Hall Sex Differences in Marriage Age Men tend to marry younger women This age difference increases with man’s age Women tend to marry men who are slightly older This changes little with age Based on U.S. marriage statistics for the 1980’s

©1999 Prentice Hall The Erotic Animal: Motives for Sex The Biology of Desire. The Psychology of Desire. The Culture of Desire. The Riddle of Sexual Orientation.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Biology of Desire Hormones and sexual response. Arousal and orgasm.

©1999 Prentice Hall Hormones and Sexual Response Testosterone appears to promote sexual desire in both sexes. Documentation included several studies of men and women. However, this is not simple relationship. Sexual behavior also increases testosterone. Psychological factors are usually more important than hormones. Sexual offenders who are chemically castrated don’t always lose sexual desires.

©1999 Prentice Hall Arousal and Orgasm Freud differentiated between “immature” clitoral orgasms and “mature” vaginal orgasms in women. Kinsey suggested that males and females had similar orgasms but that females were less sexual. Masters and Johnson asserted that women’s capacity for sexual responses surpassed men’s. Didn’t examine differences based on developmental, experiential or cultural factors.

©1999 Prentice Hall Arousal and Orgasm What we know now. Physiological responses don’t always correlate with subjective experiences. Psychologists still disagree on whether there are sex differences in sex drive. Social psychologists suggest that males sexual behavior is more biologically determined while females sexual desires and responsiveness are more affected by circumstances, the specific relationship and cultural norms.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Sexual-Response Cycle

©1999 Prentice Hall The Psychology of Desire Motives for sex include: Enhancement. Intimacy. Coping. Self-Affirmation. Partner Approval. Peer Approval.

©1999 Prentice Hall Sexual Coercion and Rape. Persistent gender differences occur in perceptions of, and experiences with sexual coercion. Of a representative sample of 3000 people, 25% of the women said that a man (usually husband, or boyfriend had forced them to do something sexually. Only 3% of the men said they had ever forced a woman into a sexual act. 11% of Massachusetts high school girls ages reported that they had been sexually assaulted by someone they were dating.

©1999 Prentice Hall Possible Motivations for Rape Peer approval. General anger. Revenge. The desire to dominate. Anger at women or the world.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Culture of Desire Sexual Scripts Sets of implicit rules that specify proper sexual behavior for a person in a given situation, varying with the person’s age, culture, and gender.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Riddle of Sexual Orientation Factors which do not explain homosexuality: A smothering mother. An absent father. Emotional problems. Same sex play in childhood and adolescence. Parental practices. Role models. Seduction by an older adult.

©1999 Prentice Hall Biological Explanations for Homosexuality Studies demonstrating brain differences have not been replicated. Prenatal exposure to androgens. May be moderately heritable.

©1999 Prentice Hall Sexual Orientation: Genetic Links Identical twins have highest concordance (similarity) rates for sexual orientation Same pattern for males and females This suggests some genetic link in sexual orientation

©1999 Prentice Hall Difficulty in finding origin of homosexuality Sexual identity and behavior are different and can occur in different combinations. Some are sexually attracted to both men and women. Some are heterosexual in behavior bu have homosexual fantasies. Sexual behaviors can differ in different cultures.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Competent Animal: Motives to Achieve The importance of goals. Types of goals. Expectations and self-efficacy.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Competent Animal: Motives to Achieve Need for achievement A learned motive to meet personal standards of success and excellence in a chosen area.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Importance of Goals Goals improve motivation when: The goal is specific The goal is challenging but achievable The goal is framed in terms of approach goals instead of avoidance goals Approach goals are framed as getting what is wanted. Avoidance goals are framed in terms of avoiding unpleasant experiences.

©1999 Prentice Hall Types of Goals Performance Goals Goals framed in terms of performing well in front of others, being judged favorably, and avoiding criticism. Mastery (Learning) Goals Goals framed in terms of increasing one’s competence and skills.

©1999 Prentice Hall Expectations and Self efficacy Self-fulfilling prophecy A expectation that comes true because of the tendency of the person holding it to act in ways that bring it about. Self-Efficacy A person’s belief that he or she is capable of producing desired results, such as mastering new skills and reaching goals.

©1999 Prentice Hall The Effects of Work on Motivation Working conditions. Opportunities to achieve.

©1999 Prentice Hall Working Conditions Working conditions that increase job involvement, motivation, and satisfaction include: Work provides a sense of meaningfulness. Employees have control over part of work. Tasks are varied. Company maintains clear and consistent rules. Employees have supportive relationships with.superiors and co-workers. Employees receive useful feedback. Company offers opportunities for growth.

©1999 Prentice Hall Opportunities to Achieve When person lacks fair chance to make it, he or she may be less than successful.

©1999 Prentice Hall Motives, Values and Well-Being Motivational conflicts. Maslow’s hierarchy of need. Universal psychological needs.

©1999 Prentice Hall Motivational Conflicts Approach-Approach Conflict Equally attracted to two activities or goals. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict Choosing between the “lesser of the evils.” Approach-Avoidance Conflict One activity or goal has both positive and negative elements. Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflicts Several choices, each with advantages and disadvantages.

©1999 Prentice Hall Maslow's Pyramid of Needs Needs arranged hierarchy. Low-level needs must be meet before trying to satisfy higher-level needs. Esteem: Status, respect, power. Self-actualization: Fulfill one’s potential.

©1999 Prentice Hall Universal Psychological Needs Autonomy Feeling that choices are based on true interests and values. Competence Feeling able to master hard challenges. Relatedness Feeling close to others who are important to you. Self-esteem Self-respect.

©1999 Prentice Hall Universal Psychological Needs