The Psychology of the Person Chapter 11 Humanistic Approach Naomi Wagner, Ph.D Lecture Outlines Based on Burger, 9 th edition

The “Third Force” The Humanistic approach has emerged in the late 1960’s, primarily as a reaction to the two major views of humanity popular at that time The Humanistic approach has emerged in the late 1960’s, primarily as a reaction to the two major views of humanity popular at that time The Freudian perspective and its emphasis on unconscious sexual and aggressive instincts The Freudian perspective and its emphasis on unconscious sexual and aggressive instincts The behavioral perspective, and its emphasis on the mechanical nature of responses to stimuli in the environment. The humanistic perspective, thus, as been called the “third force”.

Reaction Against the Deterministic Perspective of Human Nature In Psychoanalysis, the unconscious is a hypothetical concept that cannot be empirically validated We are seen as captive in the “hands” of forces unknown to us In the Behavioral Approach, we are seen as being manipulated without being fully aware by classical and operant conditioning Ideas based on studies of rats that learned to run in a maze to find food. Ideas based on studies of rats that learned to run in a maze to find food.

The Skinner Box Picture shows a rat pulling as lever in a box The Skinner Box Picture shows a rat pulling as lever in a box

Roots of the Humanistic Approach 1. Existential Philosophy Existential philosophy addresses many of the questions that later became the cornerstone of the Humanistic approach, such as, the meaning of our existence, the role of free will, and the uniqueness of each individual. The existentialists, such as Rollo May, focused on existential anxiety- the feeling of dread associated with the realization that there is no meaning to one’s life.

Existential Anxiety- What is there to life? Munch: The Scream Picture is multicolor, shows a man standing on a bridge, covering his ears, and seems to be screaming

2. The clinical experiences of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. The founders of the Humanistic Approach, Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, were both therapists At that time, the Freudian model of therapy was popular, viewing the therapist as an expert who tells the client what is the problem Rogers maintained that it was only the client that is responsible for the therapeutic direction The therapist can create conditions for self- exploration.

The Freudian Model of Psychotherapy The therapist as the “know- al” expert Picture shows a woman lying on a sofa and a man is sitting behind her.

Viktor Frankl- An Existential Psychologist All of Frankl’s family died in the Nazi concentration camp Frankl survived, and struggled to search for meaning in the face of horrible adversity He believed the examining the finiteness of our existence and inevitable mortality adds meaning to life, as we ask ourselves- Why do we exist? What do we want from life? How can we make every moment count?

What is the best way to spend the time that is left? Frankl concludes that the meaning of life is found in every moment of living; life never ceases to have meaning, even in suffering and death meaning of lifemeaning of life rch_for_Meaning

From the Ashes to Hope Picture shows Jewish prisoners in Nazi death camps Another picture of a bird perched on a barbed wire

Viktor Frankl Conclusion “Love is the highest and ultimate goal to which man can aspire The Salvation of man is in love and through love A man who has nothing left in this world still may know bliss, if only for a brief moment in the contemplation of the beloved” Frankl's meaning in life is to help others find theirs.

Cognitive-Restructuring Frankl’s ideas have been translated into the Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Picture shows Viktor Frankl Picture shows Viktor Frankl

Key Elements of the Humanistic Approach The Humanistic Perspective has not presented a comprehensive framework, but rather a collection of major principles that can be seen as directives to life.

Key Elements of the Humanistic Perspective Emphasis on personal responsibility (You don’t “have to” do your homework, you have chosen to do so). You are not a victim of circumstances! Picture shows a boy falling asleep on pile of books on his desk

Key Elements (cont-d) Emphasis on functioning in the “here and now”– Do not be a captive of your past! Picture shows an elderly woman watching her image in the mirror, that sews a young reflection

Key Elements (cont-d) Acknowledging the phenomenology of the individual- - the fact that it is only the client (in therapy) that can make decision for him/herself. Picture shows an elderly woman looking in the mirror and a caption reads “Who am I?”

Key Elements (cont-d) Emphasis on personal growth—Rogers called this ”becoming a fully functioning, while Maslow referred to this idea as “self-actualization”. Picture shows a man standing on the top of a cliff raising both hands

Self-Actualization- What is it? There is more to life than the absence of problems The Humanistic perspective maintains that we all have a drive toward “self-actualization” It means: To become that best we can become, in the context of our life (you do not have to receive the Nobel Prize).

Carl Rogers and Person-Centered Therapy The role of the therapist is to create an atmosphere of “unconditional positive regard” to enable the client’s self-exploration and becoming “fully functioning”. Paraphrasing and reflection of feelings were methods to facilitate self-exploration Rogers described the “fully- functioning person” as an ideal for healthy personality. Rogers saw anxiety as resulting from our inability to incorporate information that is inconsistent with our self-image

Rogers (cont-d) Note his emphasis on social- environmental causes of emotional maladjustment (in contrast to the biological approach), when he sees parental conditional acceptance. Note his emphasis on social- environmental causes of emotional maladjustment (in contrast to the biological approach), when he sees parental conditional acceptance. The Rogerian therapist would say to a client: “I do not like what you did, but I still respect you as a human being”.

Abraham Maslow Abraham Maslow was interested in exploring the sources of happy, healthy personality. His approach was optimistic, regarding human beings as free-willed individuals, and not as captive by unconscious drives His contribution is in the hierarchy of needs, and in the study of the psychologically-healthy individuals.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow distinguished between D (deficiency) needs and B (being) needs. Physiological needs Safety needs Love and Belongingness needs Esteem needs (you value yourself, and others also value you) Self-Actualization needs

Hierarchy of Needs

Misconceptions about Maslow Hierarchy You do not have to fulfill all the needs in one level to “climb” to the next level Some people who starve for their loved one, or for their life work Te needs in each level are never fully satisfied There are cultural differences in the ways the needs are regarded and are fulfilled

The “psychologically-Healthy” People The “psychologically-Healthy” People Maslow’s study of the psychologically- healthy people was Not empirically-based He examined his friends, whom he judged to be psychologically healthy, as well as historical figures His analysis was “holistic” and subjective Yet, it was relevant that he called attention to the healthy aspects of human nature

Attributes of the Psychologically- Healthy people Sense of humor Creativity- not in artistic talent, but in being able to perform mundane tasks in a non-routine manner. Open to new experiences Having “peak experiences” involving the transcendence of time and place.

Current Status of the Humanistic Approach Many of the concepts do not lend themselves for operational definitions and for scientific study. A great deal of the studies conducted by Maslow and Rogers to support their ideas were based on their own subjective impressions and intuition. A great deal of the studies conducted by Maslow and Rogers to support their ideas were based on their own subjective impressions and intuition. The concept of free will has been challenged. The concept of free will has been challenged.

Current Status (cont-d) Many of the concepts do not lend themselves for operational definitions and for scientific study. A great deal of the studies conducted by Maslow and Rogers to support their ideas were based on their own subjective impressions and intuition. A great deal of the studies conducted by Maslow and Rogers to support their ideas were based on their own subjective impressions and intuition. The concept of free will has been challenged. The concept of free will has been challenged.

Limitations' Some researchers questioned the effectiveness of the Rogerian therapy (how do you measure success in therapy?). It may be more appropriate for people in “life transitions” than for deep- seated psychological disorders The appropriateness of relying on the client to make accurate appraisals of themselves has been questioned. The naïve assumptions about the goodness of individuals.

Applications Rogers applied his ideas into a system of therapy that emphasizes the creation of the right conditions to allow the client to accept him/herself, and to achieve personal growth. Extending to the client “unconditional positive regard” facilitates this goal. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been applied into understanding job satisfaction and vocational choices.

The Psychology of Optimal Experience and Positive Psychology The legacy of the Humanistic Approach is in the emergence of the new branch of psychology, Positive Psychology This branch focuses of human virtues, strengths, resilience, and coping with adversity An important topic is the pursuit of happiness- What is happiness?

Positive Psychology Positive Psychology had emerged gradually, and it is associated today with the names of Martin Seligman, who started his involvement in this field with his studies of optimism, and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, who coined the term “The Flow” (see later) The focus of Positive Psychology is on human strengths and virtues The focus of Positive Psychology is on human strengths and virtues The study of resilience in face of adversity is related to this issue

Historical Background It seems that in the earlier part of the 20th century there was interest in variables related to positive issues, such Terman and his studies of giftedness, or Carl Jung and his search for the “meaning of life” It seems that in the earlier part of the 20th century there was interest in variables related to positive issues, such Terman and his studies of giftedness, or Carl Jung and his search for the “meaning of life” In the aftermath of World War II ( ) the need has arisen for clinical psychologists to take care of a host of psychological problems In the aftermath of World War II ( ) the need has arisen for clinical psychologists to take care of a host of psychological problems

Cont-d Clinical psychology has originally evolved from the need to understand and intervene in psychological disorders (e.g. Freud and his patients). Positive Psychology focuses on human strengths and resilience, the ability to bounce back from adversity. We tend to think of traumatic events as disruptive and painful, and related to later maladjustment, and there is a change now We tend to think of traumatic events as disruptive and painful, and related to later maladjustment, and there is a change now

Resilience Positive Psychology focuses on the search for inner strength that may enable a person undergoing a traumatic event to find the silver lining around the cloud. Positive Psychology focuses on the search for inner strength that may enable a person undergoing a traumatic event to find the silver lining around the cloud. The concept of post-trauma growth reflects the translation of this idea into clinical psychology, when we offer services to the survivors of trauma The concept of post-trauma growth reflects the translation of this idea into clinical psychology, when we offer services to the survivors of trauma

The Psychology of Optimal Experience In searching for the meaning of happiness, Csikszentmihlyi introduced the concept of “flow”, quite similar to Maslow’s Peak Experience In searching for the meaning of happiness, Csikszentmihlyi introduced the concept of “flow”, quite similar to Maslow’s Peak Experience It involves being totally absorbed in an activity that requires your full attention and utilizes your skills to the utmost You have a feeling you are in a state of “flow” There are 8 components of the “flow” (see textbook).

Topics in Positive Psychology The pursuit of happiness: David Myers, in his studies of happiness, uses the concept of relative deprivation- a term coined originally by researches studying the satisfaction of American soldiers during World War II (Merton and Kitt, 1950; Stouffer and others, 1949) Relative Deprivation refers to the perception that one is less well-off than others with whom one compares oneself Relative Deprivation refers to the perception that one is less well-off than others with whom one compares oneself

Myers (cont-d) Frustration is often compounded by the fact that we compare ourselves to others who are a rung or two above us in their level of income. One possible source of frustration today is the affluence depicted in TV programs.

Happiness, Where are You? Positive psychologists argue that happiness cannot be found solely through material possessions (though some level of material possessions need to be regarded as basic for survival) Positive psychologists argue that happiness cannot be found solely through material possessions (though some level of material possessions need to be regarded as basic for survival) Happiness cannot be found in money (after you have the basic necessities and some more…) because the human mind has a tendency to escalate or raise the bar whenever a goal is reached- we want more. Happiness cannot be found in money (after you have the basic necessities and some more…) because the human mind has a tendency to escalate or raise the bar whenever a goal is reached- we want more.

(cont-d) Some authors suggest that the more energy is invested in the acquisition of material goods, the less energy remains to invest in social connections and other spheres of life that can bring happiness.

The Flow The flow is another central concept of Positive Psychology, and it refers to an “optimal experience”, in which one is engaged in an activity (that may vary from one person to another), and is being carried out in a natural, almost effortless movement from one step to the next Happiness is not seen as a specific destination, but as a process of challenging oneself in a meaningful activity

Cont-d The activity is challenging and requires skill; one’s attention is completely absorbed; the activity has clear goal; one achieves a sense of personal control; one loses a sense of time and self- consciousness

U. Of Penn Center for Positive Psychology The following remarks are from icle.pdf (please read!! very interesting and important): “Positive Psychology” : An Introduction. icle.pdf icle.pdf

From U. of Penn Article “Subjective Well-Being” Edward Diener studies “subjective well-being”- what people think and how they feel about their lives, the cognitive and affective conclusions they reach when they evaluate their lives. This term actually reflects what is that people mean by happiness Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi note that even though subjective well-being research relies primarily on global self-ratings, its findings are plausible.

Temperamental Correlates of Subjective Well-Being Temperamental dimensions were found to be correlated with subjective well-being, especially optimism. Optimism seems to mediate between external events and the person’s interpretation of these events Another trait associated with subjective well- being is self-determination. Researchers Ryan and Deci propose that when the three related human needs, for competence, belongingness, and autonomy, are satisfied, personal well-being is optimized. Another trait associated with subjective well- being is self-determination. Researchers Ryan and Deci propose that when the three related human needs, for competence, belongingness, and autonomy, are satisfied, personal well-being is optimized.

Myers’ View of Happiness David Myers sees happiness related to funds (a basic level of income to sustain oneself), friends (close personal relationship) and faith (people who report some type of spiritual/religious connection report a higher level of subjective well-being) David Myers sees happiness related to funds (a basic level of income to sustain oneself), friends (close personal relationship) and faith (people who report some type of spiritual/religious connection report a higher level of subjective well-being)

Myers (cont-d) According to Myers, traditional values must contain important elements of truth if they have survived across generations. In addition, Myers also notes that the perception that one has control over one’s life is related to happiness

Cerebral Asymmetry and Happiness Recent studies of cerebral asymmetry identified that the processing of positive emotions occurs in the left hemisphere, and negative emotions in the right hemisphere Recent studies of cerebral asymmetry identified that the processing of positive emotions occurs in the left hemisphere, and negative emotions in the right hemisphere Some of us, while in resting, non- emotional state, show higher right hemispheral activity, and some higher left, again suggesting the heritability of positive or negative emotional responses Some of us, while in resting, non- emotional state, show higher right hemispheral activity, and some higher left, again suggesting the heritability of positive or negative emotional responses

Being Unrealistically Optimistic A bit of “defenses” Might be Good for You! Valliant suggests that mature defenses such as altruism, sublimation (channeling pain into some productive), creative activity, humor, positive anticipation- can help one overcome life disappointments. Valliant suggests that mature defenses such as altruism, sublimation (channeling pain into some productive), creative activity, humor, positive anticipation- can help one overcome life disappointments. Shelly Taylor cites studies indicating that unrealistically optimistic beliefs about the future can protect people from illness. icle.pdf Shelly Taylor cites studies indicating that unrealistically optimistic beliefs about the future can protect people from illness. icle.pdf icle.pdf icle.pdf

Final Note on Positive Psychology Psychology has been focused on the negative, may be because negative emotions may reflect more urgent problems that need clinical attention. Psychology has been focused on the negative, may be because negative emotions may reflect more urgent problems that need clinical attention. This would make evolutionary sense, because immediate problems or dangers may require immediate attention. It has been also suggested that people are blinded to the survival value of positive emotions because they seem “natural”. This would make evolutionary sense, because immediate problems or dangers may require immediate attention. It has been also suggested that people are blinded to the survival value of positive emotions because they seem “natural”.

Cont-d We take for granted how much love, hope, enjoyment, and trust are important and allow us to go on living. We take for granted how much love, hope, enjoyment, and trust are important and allow us to go on living. These conditions are fundamental to existence, and if they are present, many obstacles can be overcome. These conditions are fundamental to existence, and if they are present, many obstacles can be overcome. Albert Camus, the French philosopher wrote that the foremost question of philosophy is why should not one commit suicide. In this connection, one cannot answer this question just by curing depression. There must be positive reasons for living as well. Studying positive human traits can help improve mental health.

Food for Thought What is the relationship between momentary experience of happiness and a long-lasting experience of content, of well being? How much delayed gratification is necessary to increase the chances of long- term well-being? What is the genetic contribution (heritability) to positive states of mind?

Food (cont-d) Why do most people opt for pleasure (such in satisfying homeostatic needs) over enjoyment (when they do something that stretches them beyond what they are)? What should be the relationship between individual well-being and collective well- being?

More How are positive dispositions and negative dispositions related to one another? How can positive traits be encouraged in psychotherapy? Is positive psychology descriptive, or prescriptive (such as clinical psychology)