José Miguel Cruz Florida International University

 The most violent region of the world  One of the poorest regions in Latin America  Massive emigration to the United States  In 2014, 76% children in the Mexico-U.S. border came from Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras

CountryRate Honduras82 El Salvador66 Venezuela49 Guatemala42 Colombia33 Brazil23 Dominican Republic25 Panama22 Ecuador18 Mexico18 Nicaragua11 Paraguay12 Costa Rica9 Bolivia9 Uruguay6.1 Argentina5.5 Peru5.2 United States4.5 Chile3.7 Canada1.8 World Homicide Rate: 6.9 Homicide Rates in Latin America, Source: UNODC, 2013 Global Study on Homicide Rates per 100,000 inhabitants

Source: Cruz, 2011

 Many actors, few data  “Social violence” (senseless acts of violence)  Youth gangs  Criminal organizations

 Most explanations about current violence and the crisis focus on:  Poverty and inequality  Legacies of Civil War  Migration and deportation (Gangs were imported from the United States)  Penetration of drug cartels in Central America from Mexico

CountryGDP per capita (US$) (2013) GDP Growth (Average % ) Pop. Living with $2/day (%) Income inequality index) Mexico8, Guatemala3, El Salvador3, Honduras2, Nicaragua1, Costa Rica10, LAC region7, USA53, Source: World Bank Economic Indicators and UNDP Human Development Report

CountryRanking (1-182)Life expectancy females (years) Literacy rate (%) Guatemala122 (Medium)7573 El Salvador106 (Medium)7782 Honduras112 (Medium)7683 Nicaragua124 (Medium)78 Costa Rica54 (High)8296 LAC region7985 USA13 (Very high)8299 Source: UNDP Human Development Report

GuatemalaEl Salvador HondurasNicaraguaCosta Rica Indicators of economic performance GDP per capita (2007)3,3413,7822,3891,7779,443 Gini Index Average Growth of GDP ( ) Indicators of war-legacies Demobilized soldiers (n)14,00024,500n/a72,720n/a Guerrillas/Contras (n)50012,362n/a19,000n/a Paramilitaries (n)279,42130,000n/a0 Total (n)293,92166,862n/a91,726n/a Source: PNUD 2009

Indicators of institutional infrastructure GuatemalaEl Salvador HondurasNicaraguaCosta Rica Police officers per 100,000 pop Judges per 100,000 pop Public attorneys per 100,000 pop Average percentage of public spending on security in national budget ( ) Average police officer monthly wage (in US$) Source: PNUD 2009; Cruz 2010

 Usually blamed for the problem of violence  The prevailing narratives are:  They are the result of migration  MS-13 and 18 th Street Gangs are a imported problem  They took over and control the streets in Central America

 The problem is more complex than that  No more than 15% Central American gangs have been outside their countries  Not the only actors of violence, even when they contribute significantly

Mara Salvatrucha and 18 th Street Gang members celebrating their peace agreement in San Martin, San Salvador, 1996.

…To Organized Crime: Gang members in Salvadoran prisons, 2006 (Photographs by Isabel Muñoz)

 Gangs are not the cause but the symptom of a myriad of structural causes  But the decisive factor in their evolution is:  Public Security Policy

Chalatenango 18 th Street National Prison “The heart of the Eighteenth was there…” Country/City “A” Country/City “B” Country/City “C”

Deployment of Mano Dura in El Salvador, July 2003

Zero Tolerance Crackdown in Honduras, 2003

StagePeriodRespnse Street corner gangs1980s-1994Indifference Constitution of maras Swing between crackdowns and indifference Organizational incubation Mano Dura Territorial consolidation2009-Swing between mano dura, prevention, and negotiartion

Source: Policia Nacional Civil

Source: Instituto de Medicina Legal, 2008

Gangs have developed into organized crime organizations in contexts in which State institutions, via draconian policies and illegal violence, have provided them with incentives, opportunities and legitimacy.

José Miguel Cruz Florida International University