STRESS a. Causes of Stress b. Measuring Stress c. Stress Management HEALTH & CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY G543

Starter Q.  Based on what we’ve learnt, any other knowledge, common sense: how can we measure stress?  In pairs come up with at least 3 ideas

a. Physiological b. Self-Report c. Combined 2. Measuring Stress

EXAM STYLE QUESTIONS (ESQ) Measuring Stress PHYSIOLOGICAL COMBINED APPROACH SELF-REPORT June 2010 Describe one physiological measure of stress. (10) Assess the validity of different methods of measuring stress. (15) June 2012 Describe the self-report method of measuring stress. (10) Compare the different measures of stress. (15) Example a.Describe combined methods for measuring stress (10 marks) b.Evaluate the reliability of methods of measuring stress.

Physiological Measures  Physiological measures of stress measure the body’s response to stress by measuring levels of physiological arousal. There are a number of indexes of arousal, e.g. heart rate, GSR level (skin conductance), blood pressure, and respiration rate. These four indexes of arousal are measured by a Polygraph machine, for example:

Physiological Measures  Arousal can also be measured biochemically by analysing the levels of stress hormone in saliva, urine or blood samples. The adrenal gland secretes stress hormones and levels of cortisol and adrenaline and noradrenaline levels can be analysed in order to measure stress levels.

 Task: What are the strengths and weaknesses of physiological measures of stress? Internal validityReliability High Low

Measuring the effects of stress Measuring the physiological effects  Looking at blood and urine for hormone levels  Using methods such as GSR Advantages Disadvantages

Repeat Study: Geer & Meisel  You should focus on the measurements in particular  Two physical measures were used: the heart rate and the GSR.  As described earlier, there were problems with the reliability of both measures – results may be inconsistent due to malfunctioning/tricky machinery

CONTROL: GEER & MEISEL, 1972 Aim Does lower stress result from being able to predict the occurrence of an unpleasant stimuli or is the lower stress related to the controlling behaviour itself? Background People prefer predictable rather than unpredictable averse events. By definition, people who control the termination of a stimulus can also predict its length. Therefore, people who can predict when an unpleasant event is going to stop should have a lower stress response to it. Sample 60 psychology undergraduates from New York University.

Method A laboratory experiment involving three groups and using an independent measure design. Procedure The ‘control’ group saw ten pictures of victims of violent death at 60- second intervals with a warning tone ten seconds before each one. They could press a button to change the picture as they wished. The ‘predictability’ and ‘no control’ group had no button and instead were ‘yoked’ to the control group. The ‘predictability’ group were unable to terminate or control the presentation but they knew about the relationship of the warning tone to the picture so they know when it would come and how long it would last. The ‘no control’ group had no control and no idea how long each picture would last. They thought pictures and tones occurred at random. Data was collected by heart rate monitors and galvanic skin response via a polygraph. CONTROL: GEER & MEISEL, 1972 Here ‘control’ means in control, not a comparison group. Joined to.

Results & Conclusions GSR results showed a clear difference between the prediction group and the other two, with a much greater stress response to the warning tone. There was not difference in response to the photographs between the predictability and not control groups but the control group itself show a lower skin conductance. Therefore, being able to predict what was coming did not seem to prevent the stress response, whereas being able to stop it did. Having control over aversive stimuli reduces its stressful impact. Heart rate monitors malfunctioned and were not included in the analysis.

3a. Evaluation Questions: PHYSIOLOGICAL EVALUATION  Why is the study unethical?  Is GSR a reliable measure? Why  What are issues with other measuring techniques? DEBATES  How does this study contribute to the ‘Psychology as a Science’ debate?  Why is this study low in usefulness?

3a. Evaluation Questions: PHYSIOLOGICAL EVALUATION  The images may have caused stress to the participant, breaching ethical guidelines.  GSR is know to be unreliable as are polygraph test and the heart rate measures. DEBATES  Use of scientific measures  It was low in usefulness and failed to clarify the mechanism involved in prediction and control of aversive stimuli.

Self Report  Holmes and Rahe’s (1967) SRRS is an example of a self-report measure of stress (see background to Hassles and Life Events as causes of stress).  See text book or slides in this presentation.  Task  1. Examine the study. Identify challenges to the validity of the SRRS as a measure of stress.  2. What type of data does the SRRS produce? Identify the strengths and weaknesses of this kind of data.  3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of using self report measures to assess stress levels?

Self-report  Self-report scales are used to measure mood and attitude, such as the general health questionnaire or the DASS (Depression, anxiety and stress scale) or PSS (Perceived stress scale) Advantages  Simple and easy to administer  Good starting point – may provide info which leads to further research  Validity: subjective insight into the patients own experience of their mood and attitudes etc.  Rating scales – reliable as replicable  Cheaper than biological measures Disadvantages  Social desirability bias  Questions are simple so do not get much detail – cannot elaborate (don’t know why)  Scales may be interpreted differently by different individuals which lowers the validity and reliability of the method  Best to follow up with an interview with a health professional and that works best if you have good rapport between patient and health professional

Self-reports that measure life events as trigger of stress Life scales (there are many including Social Readjustment Rating Scale & Hassles and Uplifts scale) Advantages  Research has shown that life events do cause stress so based on sound research  Cheaper than biological measures  Participants know their situation best so this gives first hand insight into their situation (validity) Disadvantages  Terms are often ambiguous, especially in the SRRS – interpretation lowers reliability and validity  Stressors listed are very subjective and often not relevant for today (outdated)  Reductionist as only looks at events  Much disagreement between psychologists as to which scales are valid

SELF-REPORT HOLMES & RAHE, 1967 Aim To create a method of measuring stress to take account of major events in a person’s life. Background It is assumed that certain major life events such as marriage, bereavement and divorces are major stressors because they require change and cause the onset of stress-related illnesses. A tool was needed which would given an idea of the scale of such disruption in people’s lives so that doctors has some idea of the extent they were affecting their patients. Sample An opportunity sample of 394 people were used: 179 males and 215 females, of which 171 were single and 223 were married. They were aged between yrs and were mainly middle class and white.

SELF-REPORT HOLMES & RAHE, 1967 Method/ Procedure A questionnaire containing 43 items was used. Each person assigned a value to various life events, starting with marriage which was given an arbitrary value of 500, and working down a list of 43 items. For each item, participants had to decide whether the life event would need more or less readjustment than marriage. The final scores were then created by working out the mean value for the entire sample for each item. They were then put in order and the most stressful event – the death of a spouse was given a value of 100. Results & Conclusion Very high agreement (>.90) was achieved between each group in the sample for each item. Males and females agree, as did participants of various ages and religions. The lowest correlation was 0.82 between black and white individuals.

3b. Evaluation Questions: SELF REPORT EVALAUTION  What are the strengths and limitations of using self-report?  Consider why these may be particularly relevant to asking people about their stress?  Comment of the generalisability of the sample  Is it a problem that uplifts were not included?  Consider how valid these results will be?  Why is this research useful to doctors? DEBATES  How will individual /situational debate link with this method?  How does this related to the nature-nurture debate?  Why could this research be seen as ethnocentric?

3b. Evaluation Questions: SELF REPORT EVALUATION  The usual issue with self-report techniques apply. However, the powerful agreement and large sample suggest this was a minor effect.  Contrast with the hassles and uplifts scale: this has only the negative life events and they are major and quite irregular. DEBATES  Nature-Nurture – are some people more prone to stress?  Is it natural and do some people benefit?  Items conformed to a western way of life so it could be seen as ethnocentric.  Usefulness – the tool has been used by doctors for many years and can give a score of how much stress a person may have been subjected to in the recent past.

Combined Approach  Johansson’s (1978) study of work related stress used a combined approach to measure stress, including  Physiological measures – urine samples were taken five times a day to analyse for stress hormone levels  Self report measures - each participant had to say how much caffeine and nicotine they had consumed since the last urine test. They also had to report on a range of emotions and feelings as well as sleepiness, well-being, calmness, irritation and efficiency etc. They had to scale these feelings on a continuum from minimum to maximum using a scale with millimetres. The score was how many millimetres from the base point the participants had marked themselves to be feeling.

 What advantages are there in taking a COMBINED APPROACH to measuring stress?

Repeat Study: Johansson  Work measures were collected through urine tests, body temperature and self-ratings of mood and alertness as well as consumption of caffeine and tobacco on the first or second day of the working week.  These measures were compared to a day spent at home where the participants were asked to stay up as if there were at work.  The same four times a day were used for the tests in both conditions.

2a. Summary Information: WORKPLACE JOHANSSON, 1978 Aim To measure the amount of stress experienced by sawmill workers and to look for a causal relationships on work satisfaction and production. Background Modern production methods require constant attention to detail on monotonous repetitive production lines which have increased efficiency by requiring workers to specialise in particular tasks. However, this has led to low self-esteem and a lack of work satisfaction in the workforce, increasing stress-related illness. Sample Swedish mill workers 14 high-risk workers, who cut, edged and graded wood – isolated and highly skilled Control group of 10 repair and maintenance workers – more freedom to set the pace of their own work/socialise The mean age of both groups was All were shift workers paid by piece rate based on group performance. WORKPLACE STRESSORS: JOHANSSON You have an overview in your textbook so annotate that or the slides as we go through them.

Method This was a quasi-experiment where the workers fell naturally into the two groups. Procedure Levels of stress-related hormones were measured using urine samples on work and rest days. Self-report questionnaires were also given to assess mood, alertness and caffeine and nicotine consumption. Body temperature was measured at the time of the urine sample. Self-rating scales were given, rating words such as ‘ well-being ’, ‘ sleepiness ’ and ‘ irritation ’. Records were kept of stress-related illnesses and absenteeism. These were compared to a day spent at home where workers were asked to stay up as if they were at work. WORKPLACE STRESSORS: JOHANSSON

Results Excretion of adrenaline in the urine of the high-risk workers was twice as high as the baseline and continued to increase to the end of the day, while the control group peaked in the morning then declined for the rest of the day. Self-reports showed the high-risk group feeling more rushed and irritated than the control group. More positive mood was reported by those doing non-repetitive tasks. Conclusions A combination of work stressors such as machine pacing, repetitiveness and a high level of responsibility, lead to chronic physiological arousal, leading to stress-related illnesses and absenteeism. Reducing work stressors can reduce illness and absenteeism.

3c. Evaluation Questions: COMBINED EVALAUTION  Why does this study have good reliability?  Does this study have good validity? Why?  What are the problems with using self-report?  What are the limitations with the sample? DEBATES  Are some people more stress prone than others?  Is it useful to know about the type of work environment that promotes stress?

3c. Evaluation & Debates: COMBINED EVALUATION  Good reliability with the two methods supporting each other’s findings.  Good validity because it is a quasi-experiment in the field.  Small sample and self-reports could mean problems with generalising these results to a wider sample in more interesting occupations. DEBATES  Situational vs. Individual explanations of behaviour – are some people more stress prone or is it determined by the situation?  Usefulness – useful to know how to improve conditions for factory workers. Moving them around the factory gives variety and therefore reduces monotony and stress.  Psych as a science – yes as scientific and objective measures BUT use of self report and no control over variables as quasi-experiment

Worksheet 4: Essay Plans  10 Mark Questions  15 Mark Questions Activity 4

EXAM STYLE QUESTIONS (ESQ) Measuring Stress PHYSIOLOGICAL COMBINED APPROACH SELF-REPORT June 2010 Describe one physiological measure of stress. (10) Assess the validity of different methods of measuring stress. (15) June 2012 Describe the self-report method of measuring stress. (10) Compare the different measures of stress. (15) Example a.Describe combined methods for measuring stress (10 marks) b.Evaluate the reliability of methods of measuring stress.

June 2010 Describe one physiological measure of stress. [10]

June 2012 Describe the self-report method of measuring stress. (10)

Describe combined methods for measuring stress (10 marks)

Introduction P1 P2 (counter-argument) P3 P4 (counter-argument) P5 P6 (counter-argument) Conclusionuseful and appropriate? Is one method more valid than others? Assess the validity of different methods of measuring stress(15)

Introduction P1 P2 (counter-argument) P3 P4 (counter-argument) P5 P6 (counter-argument) Conclusionuseful and appropriate? a.Evaluate the reliability of methods of measuring stress. [15]

Prepare the following question for a timed assessment next lesson. Good Luck!

Introduction P1 P2 (counter-argument) P3 P4 (counter-argument) P5 P6 (counter-argument) Conclusionuseful and appropriate? Discuss problems of conducting research into the causes of stress. (15)