Psychology: Brain, Mind, and Culture, 2e by Drew Westen Paul J. Wellman Texas A&M University John Wiley and Sons, Inc. PowerPoint  Presentation: Chapter 6 Memory

Lecture Outline n Memory and mental representations n Working memory n Long-term memory  Declarative versus procedural  Explicit versus implicit n Encoding issues n Forgetting © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Memory n Memory: Process by which we observe, store, and recall information  May be visual, auditory, tactile n Memory processes may involve multiple systems  Conscious  Automatic © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Mental Processing n Mental Representations: A mental model of a stimulus or category of stimuli  Sensory representations Image of a dog Sound of a gun shot  Verbal representations Concept of “Freedom” Involve neural activation different from that of sensory representation  Motoric representations Memories of actions –Swinging a tennis racket © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

The Information Processing Model of Memory © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Standard Memory Model n Assumes a metaphor of “the mind as a computer” n Memory consists of 3 stores:  Sensory registers Iconic (visual) Echoic (auditory)  Short-term memory (STM)  Long-term memory (LTM) © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Characteristics of STM n Limited duration: After seconds, information fades n Limited capacity storage  STM capacity is about 7 items of information Capacity is constant across cultures n Involves rehearsal  Maintenance: information is repeated  Elaborative: information is related to other knowledge © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

LTM n Representations of facts, images, actions, and skills that may persist over a lifetime n Involves retrieval of information n Is theoretically limitless n The serial position curve supports the existence of STM versus LTM  Primacy effect reflects LTM  Recency effect reflects STM © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

The Serial Position Curve © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (Figure adapted from Atkinson & Shriffrin, 1968)

Working Memory © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. n Working Memory is temporary storage and processing of information used to  solve problems  respond to environmental demands  achieve goals n Working memory may consist of three modules  Visual Memory Store  Verbal Memory Store  Central Executive

Working Memory Stores n Visual memory store  A temporary image (20-30 sec) that provides information about the location and nature of objects n Verbal memory store  Involves storage of verbal items Limited capacity Shallow: Items are processed in order of presentation and are subject to interference n Working memory stores are independent  Brain damage may alter visual but not verbal © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Working Memory and LTM n Evidence supporting a distinction between working memory and LTM  Working memory is easily accessed but is limited in capacity  Neurological studies in which brain damage impairs memory LTM impairment: person shows normal working memory but cannot transfer information to LTM Working memory deficit: person has a memory span of 2 digits but normal LTM  Chunking: LTM information is used to increase item size in working memory (e.g. IBM, USC) © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Varieties of LTM n Declarative memory  Semantic: “generic” knowledge of facts  Episodic: memories of specific events Autobiographical n Procedural memory: for skills n Explicit memory: Conscious retrieval of information  Recall versus recognition n Implicit memory: Skills, conditioned learning, and associative memory © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Studies of Everyday Memories © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. n Laboratory memory studies can be artificial (timing, what is memorized) n Studies of everyday memory examine the  Function of memory Our intent as we learn information –Male vs. female memory study  Emotional significance of memory Emotional memories may involve different neural mechanisms than do neutral memories  Prospective aspect of memory Emphasis is on time

Functional Aspects of Memory © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (Figure adapted from Herrmann et al., 1992)

Encoding in Long-Term Memory n Storage of information in LTM requires encoding as a function of meaning  Match between encoding and accessibility n Levels of processing: Notion that encoding can be  Shallow: the physical aspects of the stimulus  Deep: the meaning of the stimulus © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Encoding Issues n Encoding specificity principle: Idea that ease of retrieval of a memory depends on match of encoding with retrieval  Poor recall if shallow learning is examined using a deep processing technique Student reads multiple choice items in test book and then takes an essay exam… n Spacing of learning is important  Massed (“cramming”) versus spaced learning Spaced learning leads to better recall © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Mnemonic Devices n Mnemonic devices add additional cues for retrieval to enhance memory  Method of Loci The contents of a physical location that you are familiar with is linked to the items you want to recall  Peg Method Imagery is combined with a verbal rhyme –“One is a bun” (imagine a quart of milk in a bun…)  SQ3R Method Survey, question, read, recite and review © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Networks of Association n LTM is organized in clusters of information that are related in meaning  The network is composed of interconnected nodes  A node may contain thoughts, images, smells, emotions, or any other information  Mnemonic devices allow one to add concepts to existing networks © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

An Example of Interconnected Nodes © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Hierarchical Storage n Nodes in LTM may be organized in a hierarchy  Broad categories contain narrower categories n Hierarchical storage can lead to retrieval errors  “Which is farther north - Seattle or Montreal?”

Forgetting n Forgetting refers to the inability to recall previously learned information n Ebbinghaus documented the rate of forgetting of information  Initial rate of forgetting is high and then trails off... © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Memory Accuracy © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. n Memory is subject to errors and biases  Memory can be primed Study in which subjects were presented with a list (slumber, nap, bed) of words that were related to the word “sleep” –Most subjects recalled the word sleep even though that word had not been presented to them  Memory is altered by emotional factors Study of recall of high school grades –Students misremembered the D’s and F’s...

Emotional Factors and Memory © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (Figure adapted from Bahrick et al., 1996)

Theories of Forgetting © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. n Decay theory  Memory is like a fading neural trace that is weakened with disuse n Interference theory: conflict between new and old memories  Proactive: old memories interfere with recall of new information  Retroactive: new memories interfere with recall of old information n Motivated forgetting

Copyright Copyright 1999 by John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the copyright owner. © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.