Inflammation Reference: Robbins Basic Pathology 9 th edition- 2013.

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Presentation transcript:

inflammation Reference: Robbins Basic Pathology 9 th edition- 2013

بقای بدن به حذف عوامل آزاررسان خارجی یا داخلی وابسته است. این کار به وسیله ی پاسخ های پیچیده میزبان با نام Inflammation یا التهاب انجام می شود.

التهاب یک پاسخ محافظت کننده برای حذف عامل اولیه آزار سلولی و نیز بافت های نکروتیک ناشی از آسیب است. التهاب سپس وقایعی را به راه می اندازد که منجر به بهبود و بازسازی بافت می شود. این وقایع با نام “ ترمیم “ خوانده می شوند.

هرچند التهاب به پاک سازی عوامل آسیب رسان کمک کرده و فرایند ترمیم را آغاز می کند هم التهاب و هم ترمیم پتانسیل آسیب زدن به بافت های بدن را دارند. از این رو بسیاری از بیماری ها اساس التهابی دارند.

هدف واکنش التهابی انتقال سلول ها و مولکول های دفاعی میزبان شامل لکوسیت ها و پروتئین های پلاسما از گردش خون به محل بافت آسیب دیده است.

اجزای پاسخ التهابی:

Two basic patterns of inflammation:  Acute inflammation ( التهاب حاد )  Chronic inflammation ( التهاب مزمن )

Characteristics of acute inflammation:  Rapid onset (minutes)  Relatively short duration, lasting up to a few days  Fluid and plasma protein leakage  Predominantly neutrophilic leukocyte accumulation

Characteristics of chronic inflammation:  Longer duration(days to years)  Accumulation of lymphocytes and macrophages

Neutrophils & Lymphocyte

Monocyte

Main manifestations of inflammation:  Redness (erythema)  Swelling  Heat  Pain  Loss of function

التهاب به طور طبیعی خودمحدود شونده است. واسطه های شیمیایی التهاب و سلول های شرکت کننده در التهاب تنها در پاسخ به محرک آسیب رسان فعال می شوند و طول عمر آن ها کوتاه است. به علاوه در جریان التهاب مکانیسم های ضد التهابی مختلف نیز فعال می شوند تا شدت التهاب را کنترل کنند.

به طور کلی پاسخ التهابی را می توان به پنج مرحله تقسیم کرد : 1- شناسایی عامل آسیب رسان 2- فراخوانی لکوسیت ها 3- برداشت عامل مضر 4- کنترل پاسخ التهابی 5- ترمیم و بهبودی

Acute Inflammation

 Acute inflammation is a rapid response to injurious agent to deliver leukocytes and plasma proteins to the site of injury.

Stimuli for acute inflammation:  Infections (e.g. bacterial) :the most common cause  Trauma  Physical and chemical agents (e.g. burns and frostbite, some chemicals)  Tissue necrosis

شناسایی میکروب ها و سلول های نکروتیک و سایر عوامل آسیب رسان : فاگوسیت ها و سلول های دندریتیک و بسیاری سلول های دیگر مانند سلول های اپیتلیال گیرنده هایی دارند که می توانند حضور پاتوژن های عفونی و مواد آزاد شده از سلول های مرده را حس کنند. این گیرنده ها : Pattern recognition receptors یا گیرنده های تشخیص الگو نامیده می شوند چرا که می توانند ساختارها یا الگوهای مشترک بین بسیاری میکروب ها و یا بین سلول های مرده را تشخیص دهند.

Pattern recognition receptors:  Toll- like receptors: محصولات باکتری ها و ویروس ها و سایر پاتوژن ها را. شناسایی می کنند و در غشا پلاسمایی و اندوزوم ها قرار دارند.  Inflammasome: یک مجموعه ی سیتوپلاسمی چند پروتئینی است که محصولات سلول های مرده و برخی محصولات میکروبی را شناسایی می کند.

واکنش های عروقی در التهاب حاد : 1- اتساع عروق و در نتیجه افزایش جریان خون 2- افزایش نفوذپذیری عروق این دو واکنش به رسیدن سلول های خونی ( لکوسیت ها ) و پروتئین ها به محل آسیب کمک می کنند.

Vascular changes occur in microcirculation: Capillary bed

Vasodilation is the earliest change in acute inflammation which first involves arteioles: Increased blood flow Heat & redness histamine

Vasodilation

Vasodilation causing “hyperemia and redness”

Increased vascular permeability Movement of protein-rich fluid from capillaries (exudate)

What’s exudate? Exudate is a fluid with high protein content.

The final result is: Fluid accumulation in extravascular tissue “EDEMA” (swelling)

What’s edema? Edema is an excess of fluid in the interstitium or body cavities.

Cellulitis (“itis” is the suffix for inflammation) : Erythema & Swelling

Acute meningitis (exudate on the brain surface)

Loss of fluid from intravascular space Concentration of RBCs in small vessels Dilated small vessels packed with RBCs with slower blood flow (STASIS)

STASIS Accumulation of WBCs along the vascular endothelium

Mechanisms of increased vascular permeability 1. Endothelial contraction  The most common mechanism  Rapid onset & short duration

Mechanisms of increased vascular permeability 2. direct endothelial injury  Endothelial cell necrosis and detachment  Severe injuries (burns)

Mechanisms of increased vascular permeability 3. leukocyte- mediated endothelial injury  By toxic mediators released from leukocytes

Mechanisms of increased vascular permeability 4. increased transcytosis  Intracellular pathway  Mediator: Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF)

LEUKOCYTE EVENTS: EXTRAVASATION & LEUKOCYTE ACTIVATION

 Sequence of events in the extravasation of leukocytes: -Margination -Rolling -Adhesion -Transmigration -Chemotaxis

margination

Leukocyte emigration

 Rolling, adhesion, and transmigration are mediated by binding of complementary molecules on leukocytes and endothelial surfaces.

ROLLING  Relatively loose and transient adhesion of leukocytes to endothelial surfaces mediated by: SELECTIN family of molecules  E- selectin: on endothelial cells  P- selectin: on endothelial cells

ROLLING  Selectins bind to oligosaccharides:  E- selectin: sialyl- Lewis X  P- selectin: sialyl- Lewis X

ROLLING

ADHESION  In adhesion, leukocytes firmly stick to endothelial surfaces.  Adhesion is mediated by:  Integrins: on leukocytes  Integrin ligands: on endothelial cells

Integrin ligands on endothelial cells  ICAM-1: Intercellular Adhesion Molecule - 1  VCAM- 1: Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule - 1

Integrins:  Integrin family consists of a group of cell surface proteins that promote cell- cell or cell- matrix interactions.

Rolling & Adhesion

Transmigration  Transmigration is mediated by : PECAM- 1 (CD31): Platelet Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecule- 1

Transmigration collagenas e

The sequence of leukocyte recruitment in inflammation

Chemotaxis  After extravasation, leukocytes emigrate in tissues towards the site of injury oriented along a chemical gradient. Examples of chemotactic agents:  Bacterial soluble products

Chemotaxis Chemotactic agents bind to their specific receptors on surface of leukocytes. This results in actin polymerization and formation of filopodia.

Leukocyte with filopodia

Leukocyte recruitment also induces leukocyte activation:  Production of active metabolites  Secretion of cytokines  Phagocytosis

The type of emigrating leukocyte depends on the age of the inflammatory response:  First hours: neutrophils  After that: monocytes

Myocardial infarction (early neutrophilic infiltrate):

Myocardial infarction (later mononuclear infiltrate):

The sequence of events in acute inflammation:

Phagocytosis:  Three steps of phagocytosis: Recognition and attachment of the particle to the leukocyte Engulfment with formation of phagocytic vacuole Killing and degradation of the ingested particle

Recognition & attachment:  Recognition of microbes is mediated by serum proteins called opsonins.  Opsonins bind to microbes on one hand and have specific receptors on leukocytes on the other.

Recognition, attachment & engulfment:

OpsoninsOpsonin receptors IgG FcR C3bCR1

Engulfment & phagolysosome formation:

Killing & degradation:  Reactive oxygen species are responsible for microbial killing.

NADPH oxidase (phagocyte oxidase) begins the oxidative burst in leukocyte. HOCL

Hypochlorite (HOCL) is a potent antimicrobial agent that destroys microbes by halogenation or by oxidation of proteins and lipids.

After killing, lysosomal acid hydrolases degrade the microbes within phagolysosome.

Neutrophilic Extracellular Traps (NETs): تله های خارج سلولی نوتروفیلی شبکه های خارج سلولی هستند که در پاسخ به عوامل عفونی و واسطه های التهابی آزاد می شوند. این تله ها چارچوبی از کروماتین هسته ای دارند که پپتیدهای ضد میکروبی و آنزیم ها در آن قرار گرفته اند.

Neutrophilic Extracellular Traps (NETs): NET Microbe

Neutrophilic Extracellular Traps (NETs): تله های خارج سلولی نوتروفیلی غلظت بالایی از مواد ضد میکروبی را در محل عفونت فراهم می کنند و با به دام انداختن میکروب ها از گسترش آن ها جلوگیری می کنند. در طی این فرآیند هسته نوتروفیل از بین رفته و سلول می میرد.

Lymphatics & lymph nodes in inflammation:

During inflammation, lymphatic flow increases Regional lymph nodes Lymphangitis Reactive lymphadenitis

Lymphatic drainage of the hand

Lymphangitis

Structure of lymph node (afferent vessels)

Lymphadenitis