Iran

Sovereignty, Authority, and Power ► Existed sovereignly early on as the Achemenian Empire (called Persia by rival Greece)  Centralized military leadership  Set the stage for “West vs. East” themes in history  Alexander the Great conquered both, but left Persian political structure in place  Kings acceded to the throne based on heredity  State sponsored religion - Zoroastrianism

Sovereignty, Authority, and Power ► Importance of Shiism  Invaded by Arabs regularly from 7 th through 16 th centuries, bringing Islam to the region  Religion became the “glue” holding Persians together  Shia/Sunni Divide (7 th Century) ► Muhammad died without designating an heir ► Sunnis wanted the caliph to succeed (Caliphs were heads of the designated leadership, called the Sunni) ► Shiites wanted a hereditary heir of Muhammad to succeed (Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali) ► Ali was killed, Shia became a minority, believing heirs of Ali (imams) were the true carriers of Islam  12 th Decendent disappeared as a child, leading to the legend of a “Hidden Imam” – will return to establish Islamic rule again

Sovereignty, Authority, and Power ► The Safavids ( )  Forcibly converted subjects to Shi’ism with their Turkic allies  Reconstituted ancient title of “shah-in-shah” (king of kings)  90% of subjects were converted by 1650’s. Small communities of Jews, Zoroastrians and Christians remained ► Known as “People of the Book” had to pay special taxes  Governed using Persian scribes, tribal chiefs, landowners, religious leaders, merchants and guilds (much like a feudal system)

Sovereignty, Authority, and Power ► The Qajars ( )  Reconquered area by 1794  Moved capital to Tehran  Declared Shi’ism the State religion  Time of the “Great Game” ► England and Russian Empires fought for supremacy of Central Asia (Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan) ► Qajars allowed European Empires to gain monopolies  Revolution of ► 14,000 took to streets ► Creation of constitution (elections, separation of powers, legislature (Majles) ► Debate on if Islam was compatible with Democracy

Sovereignty, Authority, and Power ► Constitution of 1906  Direct elections of a legislature (Majles)  Bill of Rights guaranteeing equality under the law, criminal protections, freedom of expression  Shi’ism still the state religion, with a Guardian Council of clerics that could veto any legislation of the Majles

Sovereignty, Authority and Power ► The Pahlavis ( )  Colonel Reza Khan carried out a coup d’etat against the state in 1921, becoming shah in 1925  Reduced power of Majles  Turned over power to son, Muhammad Reza Shah in 1941  Iran became a rentier state, collecting payments from Western countries for oil drilling rights ► Importance: government doesn’t need to collect taxes to fund activities, thus, doesn’t need the people!

Sovereignty, Authority and Power  New shah had to contend with: ► Free press; elections, cabinet members and communist Tudeh (masses) Party and National Front led by Muhammad Mosaddeq  1951 – Dr. Muhammad Mosaddeq elected Prime Minister ► Oil industry nationalized  1953 – coup financed by CIA and shah reinstated with absolute power ► Muhammad Reza Shah seemed to rule a puppet state ► Power rested in Military, bureaucracy and patronage system ► 1979 – 5 th largest army in the world, largest navy in Persian gulf, largest air force in western Asia

Political and Economic Change  The Pahlavis ( ) ► White Revolution (1963)  Attempt to remove “red” (communist) influences  Land reform – government bought unused land, sold it to small farmers at low prices  Extended voting rights to women, restricted polygamy, allowed women to work outside the home ► The Resurgence Party and “Pahlavi Foundation” (1970s)  Shah disbanded other parties, declared Iran a one-party state  Replaced the Islamic calendar, and called himself “Guide to the New Great Civilization” and “Light of the Aryans”  Created a religious corps to teach peasants “true Islam”

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini Supreme Leader of Iran,

Ayatollah Ali Khamenei Supreme Leader of Iran, 1989-Present

Muhammad Khatami President of Iran,

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad President of Iran,

Hassan Rouhani Assembly of Experts ; Expediency Council ; Supreme National Security Council ; President of Iran 2013-Present

Colonel Reza Khan, a.k.a. Reza Shah Pahlavi Shah,

Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi Shah,

Political and Economic Change  Islamic Revolution and the Republic (1979- Present) ► Religiously motivated, resulted in a theocratic state ► Underlying causes:  Shah behaving as a totalitarian, not just authoritarian  Shah secularized Iran too quickly against the will of the clergy  Ties to the West offended nationalists and clergy  Charismatic leader – Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini  Quick drop in oil prices combined with high inflation in Iran

Political and Economic Change  Islamic Revolution and the Republic (1979- Present) ► National referendum in April 1979 voted to end the monarchy and establish an Islamic Republic ► Assembly of Religious Experts (clerics directly elected by the people) chosen to draft a Constitution  Approved in a plebiscite by 99% of voters ► Cultural Revolution – purify the country of secular and Western values and behaviors  Removed many professors from universities  Executions in the name of “revolutionary justice”

The Shah asked Iraq to deport Khomeini, so they sent him to Paris. Khomeini now had better access to the media and telecommunications.

2 million demonstrators strike and take to the streets of Tehran in response to the Shah’s ban on public demonstrations in 1978.

Political and Economic Change ► One Theory on the Cause of the Revolution ► Davies J-Curve of Revolution – Theory of Rising Expectations  As people’s standard of living rises, their expectation for future growth rises as well  The gap between their expectations and reality can be tolerable, but become “intolerable” if actual standard of living drops

Political and Economic Change ► Why was Khomeini’s revolution successful?  Explain.

Political and Economic Change ► Post-Khomeini (1989-Present)  Cementing of the powers of the clerics ► Rebound in oil prices, improved economy (government aid for housing and medical clinics) ► Invasion of Iraq in , people rallied behind government ► Khomeini’s charismatic authority  Succession of Ali Khamenei ► Lacked charisma, academic credentials of Khomeini ► Drop in world oil prices ► Subsequent decades of conflict between reformists and conservatives

Political Economy ► What are the geopolitical implications of these maps/charts?

► Compare the two graphs. What does this tell us of Iran and OPEC?

Iran Today ► While viewing today’s documentary:  Describe evidence of the Iranian Regime  How is Iran connected to its past?  How is it a modern society?  Did this challenge your pre-existing view of Iran? Explain why/why not.

State Institutions ► Political system fuses theocracy and democracy in a unitary state ► Theocratic Institutions:  Supreme Leader  Guardian Council  Expediency Council ► Democratic Institutions:  Assembly of Religious Experts  Majles  President

State Institutions ► Supreme Leader “The Leader”  Chosen by Assembly of Religious Experts (only tested once, in 1989)  Powers ► Eliminate presidential candidates ► Dismissal of the president ► Commander of the armed forces ► Declares war and peace ► Appoints many administrators and judges ► Nominates up to 6 members to Guardian Council ► Appoints heads of other agencies, like broadcasters  Head of State with real power

Ayatollah Ali Khamenei Supreme Leader of Iran, 1989-Present

State Institutions ► Guardian Council  12 male clerics ► 6 appointed by Supreme Leader ► 6 nominated by Chief Judge, approved by Majles  Review bills passed by Majles to ensure they comply with the sharia  May disqualify candidates for election as part of their jurist guardianship (along with Supreme Leader)

State Institutions ► Expediency Council  Created by Khomeini to referee disputes between Guardian Council and Majles  Started smaller, has grown to 32 members  Has gained the power to originate legislation  Collection of the most powerful men in Iran, including: ► High ranking clerics ► President ► Chief Judge ► Speaker of Majles ► Members of the Guardian Council ► Heads of religious foundations ► Heads of Central Bank, National Oil, Atomic Energy Commission  Also headed by Rafsanjani

State Institutions ► Assembly of Religious Experts  86 men elected by the people every 4 years  Used to only allow clerics, but requirement eliminated in 1998 ► Candidates may still be rejected by Guardian Council  With Supreme Leader and Guardian Council, in charge of constitutional interpretation  Choose a successor to the Supreme Leader, and may remove him as well  Chairman is currently Hashemi Rafsanjani

Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani President of Iran, Chairman of the Expediency Council, 1988-Present Chairman of the Assembly of Experts, 2007-Present Pragmatic conservative, tense relationship with Ahmadinejad

State Institutions ► President and Cabinet  Head of government  Elected every 4 years by voters, may serve 2 terms  Constitution requires him to be a “pious Shiite”  Powers ► Devise the budget ► “Supervise” economic matters ► Propose legislation to the Majles ► Executing the law/policies ► Signs treaties and laws ► Chairs the National Security Council ► Appoints cabinet (18 ministers) and other provincial officials

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad President of Iran,

Hassan Rouhani Assembly of Experts ; Expediency Council ; Supreme National Security Council ; President of Iran 2013-Present

State Institutions ► Bureaucracy  Expanded rapidly to create places for college graduates to work (size doubled since 1979)  Examples of new ministries: ► Culture and Islamic Guidance – censures the media ► Intelligence – chief security organization ► Heavy Industry – manages nationalized factories ► Reconstruction – spreads Islam to the countryside  Dominated by clergy and their relatives

State Institutions ► Semi-Public Institutions (Foundations)  “Autonomous”, but run by appointees of the Supreme Leader  Tax exempt, though they bring in HUGE amounts of money  Own property confiscated from pre-1979 elite  Use wealth to do “charitable work” to build regime support

State Institutions ► Military  Revolutionary Guard – created by Khomeini to counter the Shah’s existing regular army, navy, and air force ► Strong political influence, increasingly independent  Army defends the borders, Revolutionary Guard protects the Islamic Republic  All commanded by Supreme Leader, who appoints top commanders  8 th largest military in the world

State Institutions ► Judiciary  Chief Judge appointed by The Leader  Types of law in Iran ► Sharia – Islamic law, supersedes all other laws, chiefly interpreted by Supreme Leader ► Qanun – No sacred basis, just statutes made by legislative bodies (Majles, for example)  Must not contradict sharia  No judicial review – legal authority is not in the constitution, but in interpretation of sharia  Appeals system is in place, but Khomeini argued spirit of sharia was for local judges to make final decisions in most cases  Sharia dictates harsh punishments (death) for a wide variety of “crimes”, but Islamic Republic has softened the use of these over the years

State Institutions ► Legislature – The Majles  Unicameral, though the Assembly of Religious Experts seems to function as an upper house  290 seats directly elected by the people in elections  Powers ► Pass laws with approval of Guardian Council ► Interpret legislation, without contradiction of judiciary ► Approve 6 members to Guardian Council nominated by Chief Judge ► Investigate misconduct of bureaucracy and judiciary ► Remove cabinet officials (not the president) ► Approve the budget, cabinet, treaties, and loans  After reformist success in 2000 election, Guardian Council banned most reformists from running in 2004

18 ministers – M. of Intelligence must be clergy Appointed by Leader 32 Appointed by Leader million eligible to vote of 70 million citizens 6 chosen by The Leader

Linkage Institutions ► Elections  Suffrage for all over 18 to vote for president, Majles, and Assembly of Experts ► Majles is a first-past-the- post plurality system ► Presidential is a 2-round majority system

Linkage Institutions ► Interest Groups  Tough to draw the line between these and parties in Iran  Labor is organized, but business is not, given that government controls 65-80% of the economy

Linkage Institutions ► Mass Media  1981 Majles passed a law making it a crime to use “pen and speech” against the government  Restrictions lifted from time to time, but re- imposed when demonstrations pose a problem to the regime  Government owns radio and television broadcasting, but newspapers and magazines are typically privately owned

Citizens, Society, and the State ► Cleavages  Religion ► Almost 90% Shia, 10% Sunni, around 1% either Jewish, Christian or Zoroastrian ► Constitution of 1979 recognizes and respects the rights of religious minorities, though Jews, Christians, and Baha’i are often persecuted ► Constitution does not mention Sunnis

Persian Arab Kurdish Azeri

Citizens, Society, and the State ► Cleavages  Ethnicity ► 51% Persian, speaking Persian (Farsi) ► 24% Azeri, concentrated in the Northwest  Shi’ia, but don’t speak Farsi (Khamenei is Azeri)  Fear of Iranian government that they may want to unite with Azerbaijan ► 7% Kurdish, 3% Arab (both Sunnis)

Political Participation ► Post 1979 – many newspapers, labor unions, private organizations, and political parties forced to close ► Protests and Demonstrations  Banned, but still occur regularly in cities and universities  Most economic in nature, but 2009 (Green Revolution) election led to calls for democratization ► Most political opposition groups are in exile

Political Participation ► 28 voting constituencies ► Candidates submit names to subcommittee of the Guardian Council  2004 – 8,157 running for the 290 seats of the 7 th Majlis ► Election campaign one week long (can hand out paper 4”X6”

Political Participation ► Candidates with 25%+ declared winner; 2 nd round held months later for other seats (3/4 of 2004 election decided by 1 st round) ► Elections are nonpartisan – voters see ballot with long list of names without any partisan identification ► 51% turnout in 2004 (7 th Majlis); 2009 Presidential was 64%

Iranian Elections ► Iranian Elections – for your group, date the event, give a brief summary of the event and bullet 3-4 of the most important facts  First Majles  Second Majles  Third, Fourth and Fifth Majles  Sixth Majles  2005 Presidential Elections  Seventh Majles  Eighth Majles  2009 Presidential Elections

Political Participation ► Women and the Political System  “The Veil” – required in public by regime, symbolizes oppression to westerners, but not so much to Iranian women  20 th century Iranian women have had better access to education than other Mid-East countries ► About half of university students are women  Law towards women is “equality with difference” ► sharia is interpreted to favor males in divorce and custody disputes ► cannot leave the country without the consent of male relatives  Women are about 33% of the labor force  Women rarely get elected to the Majles (4.1%)

Linkage Institutions ► Political Parties  Constitution allows them, but government didn’t until 1997  Highly unstable party system, changes around personalities, but in the last election: ► Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran – Ahmadinejad’s conservative, populist party ► Green Movement (not an official political party) – formed around Mir-Hossein Mousavi (was an independent candidate) in the aftermath of the perceived stolen election ► Many other minor competitors in presidential and Majles elections

Mir-Hossein Mousavi Candidate for President, 2009 Leader of the Green Movement Prime Minister of Iran,

Muhammad Khatami President, Leader of Iranian Militant Clerics Society, withdrew from race to back Mousavi

Citizens, Society, and the State ► Cleavages  Social class ► Peasantry and lower middle class support the regime, having benefited from its programs ► Middle and upper class people tend to be secularized and critical of the clerics  Haven’t done well economically since the Revolution  Reformers vs. Conservatives ► Reformers want secularization, democracy, open relations with the West ► Conservatives want to preserve the clerical and sharia regime

Civil Society ► Pre-Revolution – people were dissatisfied with governments intrusion into private lives in civil society ► Post-Revolution – hasn’t changed much!  Many professionals leave the country  Exception – “Tehran Spring” under president Khatami ( ) ► Cautious political liberalization, loosening of speech and press rights, friendlier stance to West ► Reversed by Mahmoud Ahmadinejad ► Iran has a VERY young population!  Regime encouraged large families in its first years ► Goods were rationed per capita, making it better to have more children  60% under 30

Other “Stuff” You Should Know ► Divide in Qom – seminary city where Khomeini began denouncing Shah  Many clerics believe the union of politics and religion should not occur until the appearance of the 12 th Imam (and thus oppose the theocracy) ► “Economics is for donkeys” – quote by Khomeini dismissing the importance of the economy for policymakers