L EARNING Long lasting change in behavior, due to experience

Classical Conditioning crash course khanacademy crash course khanacademy Ivan Pavlov – studied digestion of dogs – noticed dogs would salivate before they were given food (triggered by sounds, lights etc…) – concluded: dogs must have LEARNED to salivate in response to stimuli other than the food Click above to see a reenactment of Pavlov’s experiments.

Classical Conditioning This is passive learning. First, we need an unconditional relationship. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - something that elicits a natural, reflexive response Unconditioned Response (UCR) - response to the UCS

Classical Conditioning Next, we choose a neutral stimulus (something that by itself elicits no response). We present the stimulus with the UCS a whole bunch of times.

Classical Conditioning After a while, the body begins to link together the neutral stimulus with the UCS. Acquisition

Classical Conditioning We know learning takes places when the previously neutral stimulus provokes the response. At this point, the neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned response becomes the conditioned response (CR).

Classical Conditioning Acquisition is not permanent. The moment the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have EXTINCTION.

Spontaneous Recovery Sometimes, after extinction, the CR will randomly appear when CS is presented.

Classical Conditioning Examples Click above to see classical conditioning as portrayed in The Office. See if you can identify the UCS, UCR, CS and CR. Click above to see classical conditioning in a high school student’s own “experiment”.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE: TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE: UCS ? UCR? CS? CR? You typically take showers in the locker room after practice. During one such shower, you hear someone flushing a nearby toilet. Suddenly, extremely hot water rushes out of the shower head, causing serious discomfort. As you continue the shower, you hear another toilet flush and immediately jump out form under the shower head.

UCS? UCR? CS? CR? Your mother prepared a tuna sandwich for your lunch. Unfortunately, the mayonnaise she used had been left out too long and was spoiled. Not long after eating, you felt extremely nauseated and had to rush to the bathroom. Thereafter, the mere mention of a tuna sandwich sent you scurrying to the bathroom with a hurting stomach.

UCS? UCR? CS? CR? You were happy when you heard your family's plan to go to a water show. Then you heard the weather report, which predicted temperatures exceeding 100 degrees. As you watched the water skiers perform routines to blaring organ music, you got more and more sweaty and uncomfortable. Eventually, you fainted from the heat. After the family outing you could never again hear organ music without feeling a little dizzy.

Classical Conditioning and Humans John Watson brought classical conditioning to psychology with his “Baby Albert” experiment. Click the image to the left to see footage from the “Baby Albert” experiment.

Generalization and Discrimination khanacademy khanacademy Something is so similar to the CS that there is the CR. Something is so different from the CS there is no CR.

Garcia and Koelling Study Studied rats / conditioning Conclusion #1 - Even if sickened several hours later, rats developed taste aversions. Conclusion #2 – Rats developed aversions to taste, but not sight, sound, etc. CSUCSCR Loud NoiseRadiation (nausea)NONE Sweet WaterShockNONE Sweet WaterRadiation (nausea)Avoid Water

Taste Aversions In cases of food paired with nausea & sickness, conditioning is incredibly strong. even when food and sickness are hours apart

Contingency Model Robert Rescorla – revised Pavlov’s classical conditioning model – starts with the realization that something must account for the ability to discriminate between stimuli – emphasized the role of cognitive processes during acquisition – said that classical conditioning “is not a stupid process by which the organism willy-nilly forms associations between any two stimuli that happen to occur.”

Operant Conditioning 5:47 5:47 The Learner is NOT passive. Learning based on consequence!!! khan academy Big Bang

The Law of Effect Edward Thorndike Locked cats in crates Behavior changes because of its consequences Rewards strengthen behavior If consequences are unpleasant, the stimulus- reward connection will weaken. Called the whole process instrumental learning Click picture to see a better explanation of the Law of Effect.

B.F. Skinner Operant Conditioning Emphasized nurture (environment) and the minimal role of free- will / mental processes. Used a “Skinner Box” (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to prove his concepts.

Skinner Box

Reinforcers khanacademy khanacademy A reinforcer is anything that strengthens (increases) a behavior Positive Reinforcement: The addition of something pleasant Negative Reinforcement: The removal of something unpleasant

Positively or Negatively Reinforced? Putting your seatbelt on. Studying for a test. Taking an aspirin. Faking sick and avoiding AP Psych class. Breaking out of jail. Receiving a kiss for doing the dishes.

+ Positive - Negative Reinforcement Punishment Gives something to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject wants this thing/condition) Takes something to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject does not want this thing/condition) Gives something to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject does not want this thing/condition) Takes something to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject would like to have this thing/condition)

Punishment A stimulus meant to decrease a behavior Positive Punishment addition of something unpleasant. Negative Punishment (Omission Training) removal of something pleasant Punishment works best when it immediately follows behavior and is harsh!

How do we actually use Operant Conditioning? khanacademy khanacademy Sometimes, we use a process called shaping. Shaping is reinforcing small steps on the way to a desired behavior. These small steps are called approximations.

Chaining Behaviors Subjects are taught to link multiple responses together in order to get a reward. Click picture to see a rat chaining behaviors. Click to see a cool example of chaining behaviors.

Same Terminology as Classical Conditioning Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Generalization Discrimination If I wanted to reinforce a toddler’s dancing by giving him lollipops when he dances, identify the following…

Primary v. Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer things that are intrinsically rewarding Secondary Reinforcer things we have learned to value (because they are associated with primary enforcers) Money is a special secondary reinforcer called a generalized reinforcer (because it can be traded for just about anything)

Token Economy Every time a desired behavior is performed, a “token” is given. They can trade “tokens” in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers) Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions and schools.

Reinforcement Schedules khanacademy khanacademy How often do you give the reinforcer? Every time the desired behavior is exhibited or just sometimes when it is?

Continuous v. Partial Reinforcement Schedules Continuous Reinforce the behavior EVERY TIME the behavior is exhibited. Usually done when the subject is first learning to make the association. Acquisition comes really fast, but so does extinction. Partial Reinforce the behavior only SOME of the times it is exhibited. Acquisition comes more slowly. But is more resistant to extinction. FOUR types of Partial Reinforcement schedules.

Ratio Schedules (Responses) Fixed Ratio Provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses. Variable Ratio Provides a reinforcement after a RANDOM number of responses. Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction. Fixed Ratio- She gets a manicure for every 5 pounds she loses.

Interval Schedules (Time) Fixed Interval Requires a SET amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement. Variable Interval Requires a RANDOM amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement. Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction. Fixed Interval: She gets a manicure for every 7 days she stays on her diet.

Which type of reinforcement schedule? Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Fixed Interval Variable Interval

Operant Conditioning Concepts / Components Reinforcement Negative vs. Positive Primary vs. Conditioned SchedulesRatioIntervalPunishmentNegativePositivePeopleThorndike Law of Effect / Cat Experiments Skinner Skinner Box / Rat & Bird Experiments Response / Stimulus Associations

Latent Learning Edward Tolman – demonstrated the concept using rats/mazes & reinforcers. Learning is not always immediately observable in behavior (“latent” means hidden). Learning doesn’t completely depend on consequences. cognitive maps – a mental representation of one’s environment

AP PRACTICE A child has learned her grandparents ignore rather than reward her tantrums. Which of the following operant principles are the grandparents using to control the child’s behavior? a.Positive reinforcement b.Negative reinforcement c.Delayed reinforcement d.Extinction e.Stimulus substitution

Insight Learning Wolfgang Kohler - Chimpanzees / Boxes & Bananas experiment Learning takes place through the “ah ha” experience (gaining “insight”). Weakens the behaviorist argument (emphasis on external, behavior / consequence relationship)

Images from Kohler’s chimpanzee experiments

Observational Learning khanacademy crash course khanacademy crash course Albert Bandura - BoBo Doll experiment Learning through modeling behavior from others. Observational learning + Operant Conditioning Principles = Social Learning Theory Implications of Bandura’s findings? Click pic to see footage from the Bobo Doll experiment.

Learning Associative Learning Classical Conditioning S + S Operant Conditioning R + S Other Latent Learning Insight Learning Observational Learning