Chapter 8: Language and Thought

The Cognitive Revolution Cognition: Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge. 19th Century focus on the mind Introspection Behaviorist focus on overt responses arguments regarding incomplete picture of human functioning Empirical study of cognition – 1956 conference Simon and Newell – problem solving Chomsky – new model of language Miller – memory (7 +/-2)

Language: Turning Thoughts into Words Properties of Language Symbolic: Use sounds/words to represent objects Semantic: Meaning Generative: Limited number of symbols can be combined & generate infinite combinations Structured: Rules that govern how you can arrange sentences

The Hierarchical Structure of Language Phonemes = smallest speech units 100 possible, English – about 40 Morphemes = smallest unit of meaning 50,000 in English, root words, prefixes, suffixes Semantics = meaning of words and word combinations Objects and actions to which words refer Syntax = a system of rules for arranging words into sentences Different rules for different languages

Language Development: Milestones Initial vocalizations similar across languages Crying, cooing, babbling 6 months – babbling sounds begin to resemble surrounding language 1 year – first word similar cross-culturally – words for parents receptive vs. expressive language

Overview of Typical Language Development

Language Development: Milestones Continued 18-24 months – vocabulary spurt, receptive vocab (understanding) is greater then productive vocab (spoken). Fast Mapping: map a word onto an understanding concept after 1 exposure Overextension: incorrectly use words to describe similar objects (ball: anything around) Underextension: incorrectly use words to narrower set of objects (doll: their favorite doll)

Language Development: Milestones Continued End of second year – combine words Telegraphic Speech: omitting words that are less critical (Give Doll) Mean Length of Utterance (MLU): average length of spoken statements (morphemes) End of third year – complex ideas, plural, past tense Overregularization: grammar rules are incorrectly use (I goed to sleep) 4-5 years old- formal training in writing Metalinguistic Awareness: to reflect on the use of language (coming up with jokes)

Bilingualism: Learning More Than One Language Research findings: Smaller vocabularies in one language, combined vocabularies average Higher scores for middle-class bilingual subjects on cognitive flexibility, analytical reasoning, selective attention, and metalinguistic awareness Slight disadvantage in terms of language processing speed 2nd languages more easily acquired early in life Acculturation: how much a person is socially & psychologically integrated into a new culture facilitates acquisition

Age and second language learning

Can Animals Develop Language? Dolphins, sea lions, parrots, chimpanzees Vocal apparatus issue American Sign Language Allen and Beatrice Gardner (1969) Chimpanzee - Washoe 160 word vocabulary Sue Savage-Rumbaugh Bonobo chimpanzee - Kanzi Symbols Receptive language – 72% of 660 requests

Theories of Language Acquisition Behaviorist Skinner learning of specific verbal responses Nativist Chomsky learning the rules of language Language Acquisition Device (LAD): innate mechanism that facilitates learning of language (biologically) Interactionist Cognitive, social communication, and biological theories

Interactionist theories of language acquisition

Thinking Thinking refers to mental activities used to reason or reflect Mental Representations: representations of knowledge & thought. Two type: 1) Analogical: the representation has some of the qualities of the thing it represents 2) Symbolic: the representation has none of the qualities of the thing it represents

Thinking Visual Imagery: representations of sensory experience that occur in the brain w/out the presence of sensory input. Concept Formation: mental classification of objects & events based on common features 1) Concept: a class or category w/ individuals or subtypes (birds) 2) Prototype: the best example of a concept (sparrow)

Problem Solving: Types of Problems Greeno (1978) – three basic classes Problems of inducing structure Series completion and analogy problems Problems of arrangement String problem and Anagrams Often solved through insight Problems of transformation Hobbits and orcs problem Water jar problem

Six standard problems used in studies of problem solving

The tower of Hanoi problem

Effective Problem Solving Well defined vs. ill defined problems Barriers to effective problem solving: Irrelevant Information Functional Fixedness: to see an item for only its most common use Mental Set: when people use problem solving strategies that have worked in the past Unnecessary Constraints

Approaches to Problem Solving Problem Space: the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem solver. Algorithms: method, step by step procedure in searching for a solution Trial-&-Error: trying possible solutions & discarding those that don’t work until you find a solution. Heuristics: “rule of thumb” Shortcuts No guaranteed solution Forming subgoals Working backward Searching for analogies Changing the representation of a problem

Culture, Cognitive Style, and Problem Solving Field dependence – relying on external frames of reference Field independence – relying on internal frames of reference Western cultures inspire field independence Cultural influence based in ecological demands

Decision Making: Evaluating Alternatives & Making Choices Framing: the way a problem is posed affects the perception of how Theory of Bounded Rationality: people use simple strategies that focus on a few facts of available option which leads to irrational decisions (Simon) Making Choices Additive strategies: list positives of two things Elimination by aspects

Application of the additive model to choosing an apartment

Taking Chances Risky Decision Making: making choices under uncertain conditions Expected Value: engage in activity only if we except to win or gain something. (gambling) Subjective Utility: represents what an outcome is personally worth to a person (having insurance) Subjective Probability: personal estimates of probabilities if actual probability is not available.

Heuristics in Judging Probabilities Availability Heuristic: estimating the probability based on instances that come to mind Representativeness Heuristic: estimates the probability based on how similar it is to a typical prototype Tendency to Ignore Base Rates: pg 326 Conjunction Fallacy: people estimate the odds of 2 uncertain events happening together are greater then happening alone Alternative Outcomes Effect: beliefs about outcomes change depending how the info is presented

The Conjunction Fallacy

Understanding Pitfalls in Reasoning About Decisions Reasoning: the determination of the conclusions that can be drawn from examples or assertions 1) Inductive Reasoning: the construction of conclusions from particular examples 2) Deductive Reasoning: the process of deciding whether a conclusion can be drawn from the premises or facts The gambler’s fallacy Overestimating the improbable Confirmation bias and belief perseverance The overconfidence effect