Chapter 3: Processes

2 Process Concept Process Scheduling Operations on Processes Cooperating Processes Interprocess Communication Communication in Client-Server Systems

3 Process Concept An operating system executes a variety of programs: Batch system – jobs Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks Textbook uses the terms job and process almost interchangeably Process – a program in execution A process includes Code (or text) Data Stack Current values of the program counter and registers

Process Image in Memory (1/2)

3.1.1 Fig 3.15 Process Image in Memory (2/2) Logical view of process image in memory

6 Process State As a process executes, it changes state new: The process is being created running: Instructions are being executed waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor terminated: The process has finished execution

3.1.2 Fig 3.27 Diagram of Process State

Process State -- Example Source program: /* test.c */ int main(int argc, char** argv) { printf(“Hello world\n"); exit(0); } Compile in Linux: gcc test.c –o test Run test :./test A process test will be created, executed, and terminate. Process test runs through following states (in the best case): new ready running waiting (I/O due to call of printf) ready running terminated

Process Control Block (PCB) PCB stores the information associated with each process Process state Program counter CPU registers CPU scheduling information Memory-management information Accounting information I/O status information

3.1.3 Fig Process Control Block (PCB) One of the most important data structures in operating systems

Fig CPU Switch from Process to Process

Process Scheduling Queues Job queue – set of all processes entering the system Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and waiting to execute Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O device Queues can be implemented as lists of PCB’s Processes change state  they migrate among the various queues

3.2.1 Fig Ready Queue and Various I/O Device Queues

3.2.1 Fig Queueing Diagram interrupt occurs

15 Schedulers (1/3) Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes should be brought into the ready queue UNIX and MS Windows have no long-term scheduler Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process should be executed next and allocates CPU

Schedulers (2/3) Addition of medium-term scheduling to regulate the degree of multiprogramming The medium term scheduler swaps out/in processes between memory and disk to decrease/increase the number of processes in memory memory

17 Schedulers (3/3) Short-term scheduler is invoked very frequently (milliseconds)  must be fast Long-term scheduler is invoked very infrequently (seconds, minutes)  may be slow The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming Processes can be described as either: I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than computations, many short CPU bursts CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations; few very long CPU bursts

Context Switch Context switch: When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the data about the old process and load the previously saved data for the new process Context of a process is represented in the PCB Context-switch time is the time needed by OS to do a context switch Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful work while switching Context-switch time is dependent on hardware support

Process Creation (1/3) In Linux, Windows and many OSes, process can create new processes (children, child processes), which in turn create other processes, forming a tree of processes. Resource (files,…) sharing possibilities, dependent on OS,  Parent and children share all resources  Children share subset of parent’s resources  Parent and child share no resources Execution possibilities  Parent and children execute concurrently  The OS blocks the parent until the child finishes

Process Tree Linux/Unix root swapper pagedaemon init bash mkdir grep ls gcc

21 Process Creation (2/3) In UNIX New processes are not created from scratch (except for?) fork system call creates new process  new process is identical to its parent process; only differences are their process id’s and the return value from the fork. Why fork? exec system call used after a fork to replace the process’ memory space with a new program (  command interpreter)

3.3.1 Fig Process Creation (3/3)

3.3.1 Fig C Program Forking Separate Process int main() { pid_t pid; /* fork another process */ return_value = fork(); if (return_value < 0) { /* error occurred */ fprintf(stderr, "Fork Failed"); exit(-1); } else if (return_value == 0) { /* child process */ execlp("/bin/ls", "ls", NULL); } else { /* parent process */ /* parent will wait for the child to complete */ wait (NULL); printf ("Child Complete"); exit(0); }

Fig from Feitelson

Process Termination Process executes last statement and asks the operating system to delete it (exit) Output data from child to parent (via wait) Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system Parent may terminate execution of children processes (abort) Child has exceeded allocated resources Task assigned to child is no longer required If parent is exiting  Some operating system does not allow child to continue if its parent terminates – All children terminated – cascading termination

27 Cooperating Processes Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution of another process Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of another process Advantages of process cooperation Information sharing Computation speed-up Modularity Convenience

28 Producer-Consumer Problem Paradigm for cooperating processes, producer process produces information that is consumed by a consumer process unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the size of the buffer bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer size

29 Bounded-Buffer – Shared-Memory Solution Shared data #define BUFFER_SIZE 10 typedef struct {... } item; item buffer[BUFFER_SIZE]; int in = 0; int out = 0; Solution is correct, but can only use BUFFER_SIZE - 1 elements

30 Bounded-Buffer – Insert() Method while (true) { /* Produce an item */ while (((in = (in + 1) % BUFFER SIZE count) == out) ; /* do nothing -- no free buffers */ buffer[in] = item; in = (in + 1) % BUFFER SIZE; }

31 Bounded Buffer – Remove() Method while (true) { while (in == out) ; // do nothing -- nothing to consume // remove an item from the buffer item = buffer[out]; out = (out + 1) % BUFFER SIZE; return item; }

3.432 Interprocess Communication (IPC) Two models for process communication: Using shared memory Message passing – processes communicate with each other without resorting to shared memory

3.4 Fig 3.12 Communications Models Using shared memory Message passing

Direct Communication Processes must name each other explicitly: send(P, message) – send a message to process P receive(Q, message) – receive a message from process Q

35 Indirect Communication (1/3) Messages are directed to / received from mailboxes (also referred to as ports) Each mailbox has a unique id Processes can communicate only if they share a mailbox

36 Indirect Communication (2/3) Operations create a new mailbox send and receive messages through mailbox destroy a mailbox Primitives are defined as: send(A, message) – send a message to mailbox A receive(A, message) – receive a message from mailbox A

Indirect Communication (3/3) Mailbox sharing P 1, P 2, and P 3 share mailbox A P 1 sends; P 2 and P 3 receive Who gets the message? Solutions Allow only one process at a time to execute a receive operation Allow the system to select arbitrarily the receiver. Sender is notified who the receiver was.

Blocking/Nonblocking Send/Receive Blocking Blocking send has the sender block until the message is received Blocking receive has the receiver block until a message is available Non-blocking Non-blocking send has the sender send the message and continue Non-blocking receive has the receiver receive a valid message or null

Message Queue Length Queue of messages; implemented in one of three ways 1.Zero capacity – 0 messages Sender must wait for receiver (rendezvous) 2.Bounded capacity – finite length of n messages Sender must wait if link full 3.Unbounded capacity – infinite length Sender never waits

40 Example of shared memory for IPC POSIX Shared Memory Process first creates shared memory segment segment id = shmget(IPC PRIVATE, size, S IRUSR | S IWUSR); Process wanting access to that shared memory must attach to it shared memory = (char *) shmat(id, NULL, 0); Now the process could write to the shared memory sprintf(shared memory, "Writing to shared memory"); When done a process can detach the shared memory from its address space shmdt(shared memory);

3.641 Client-Server Communication Examples A program running on a workstation is the client of a file server, and requests it to perform operations on files. A program with a graphical user interface running on a workstation is the client of the X server running on that workstation. The X server draws things on the screen for it, and notifies it when input is events have occured in its window. A web browser is a client of a web server, and asks it for certain web pages. An ATM is a client of a bank’s central computer, and asks it for authorization and recording of a transaction. Techniques Sockets Remote Procedure Calls Remote Method Invocation (Java)

Sockets A socket is defined as an endpoint for communication socket number (address) consists of IP address and port The socket :1625 refers to port 1625 on host Well-known ports used for standard services

3.6.1 Fig Communication Using Socket Browser at

Communication Using Socket Socket primitives

Set up a Connection between Client and Server send(socket, buffer, buffer_length, flags) recv(socket, buffer, buffer_length, flags) socket()bind()listen() accept() recv()send()close() Server socket() connect() send()recv()close() Client communication

Remote Procedure Calls (1/3) Remote procedure call (RPC) extends procedure call to call a procedure residing on a remote machine – a remote procedure. Client program is bound with a client stub – a small library procedure. Server program is bound with a server stub The client-side stub locates the server and marshalls the parameters. The server-side stub  receives this message,  unmarshalls, i.e. unpacks, the marshalled parameters,  and performs the procedure on the server.

Fig from Feitelson RPC (2/3)

RPC (3/3) Calling remote procedure add(i, j) Client stub Server stub

3.6.2 Fig Execution of RPC

3.6.3 Fig Remote Method Invocation Remote Method Invocation (RMI) is a technique similar to RPC, but implemented on JVM. RMI allows a Java program on one machine to invoke a method on a remote object.

51 Marshalling Parameters marshallingunmarshalling

End of Chapter 3