Chapter 11

 In what ways do men and women differ? Biologically – physical traits

 Most of the ways you might mention would refer to gender differences.  Gender comprises the behavioral and psychological traits considered appropriate for men and women.  A person’s sex refers to the biological identity of that person.  The variety of biological characteristics are the same in all societies.  It is gender, not biology, that determines the majority of roles men and women play in society.  Equally as important, it is primarily beliefs about gender that determines the distribution of power between sexes.

 What do people mean when they say that a man is being masculine or a woman is being feminine?  These labels simply mean that the person exhibits behaviors and attitudes considered appropriate for his/her gender.  All societies have norms governing how men and women should act.  The specific behaviors and attitudes that a society establishes for men and women are called gender roles.

 What does it mean to be a boy or a girl, and how does this knowledge affect behavior?  Sociologists are concerned with how gender identity is formed and how this identity influences social behavior.  Gender identity is the awareness of being masculine or feminine as those traits are defined by culture.  However, the cultural values that influence gender identity and roles are not static and have changed in recent decades.  The degree to which a person takes on a gender identity affects his/her response to the gender roles established in society.

 Margaret Mead studied 3 New Guinea societies and found: Women were bossy and efficient while men were gossipy and artistic Men wore cosmetic and curled their hair while women wore few adornments Men expected to be passive  Sociologists interpret cross-cultural variations of gender roles as evidence that gender roles are socially created rather than biologically based.  They argue that if gender roles were based primarily on biology, there would be little variation in gender behavior from society to society.

 Individuals learn appropriate gender- role behavior through socialization.  In virtually all societies, gender socialization begins at birth and continues throughout life.  In the United States, a person’s gender role is often reinforced at birth. Newborn is given sex-specific clothes, toys, and nursery furnishings.

 Gender-typing is not as widespread as it was 30 years ago as more girls have not been discouraged from playing with traditionally male toys.  But boys are rarely dressed in pink or encouraged to play with traditionally feminine toys.

What are little boys made of? Frogs and snails, And puppy-dogs’ tails, That’s what little boys are made of. What are little girls made of? Sugar and spice And all that is nice, That’s what little girls are made of.

 Nursery rhyme from 1800s. But for most of the 1900s these gender expectations have held true. But now begun to change.  Traditionally, boys expected to be adventuresome, aggressive, physically active. Good at math and science and mechanically inclined. Encouraged to prepare for career.  Little girls expected to be polite, gentle, and passive. Expected to excel in reading and the social sciences and creative in the arts. Encouraged to look to marriage and family as their future.

 The family is the most powerful agent of gender socialization.  Parents, siblings, and other relatives all act as role models for young children.  Through family members’ conscious and unconscious actions, children quickly learn what gender behaviors are expected of them.  Schools, peer groups, and media all reinforce these gender expectations.

 Gender roles are both different and unequal.  In practically every society, gender is the primary factor used to determine a person’s social standing.  In general, to be female is to be in a position of lesser power in society.  Sociologists are interested in how this inequality between men and women arose.

 Gender inequality is related to the nature of human reproduction.  Growth of primitive societies depended on the birth and survival of children so women spent many of their adult years in pregnancy – as a result it allowed them to stay close of home.  Men took on the roles that required strength and travel away from the home base whether hunting/trading or protecting its group.  This prestige and the ownership of weapons provided men with a source of power within the group.  The power relationship between men and women developed over time into a patriarchy – system in which men are dominant over women.

 Women still seen as more responsible than men for kids – conflict theory says gender roles are a reflection of male dominance. Through control of economic and political areas of society, men have established laws and customs that protect their dominant position - thus men have blocked women’s access to power.  Institutionalized discrimination Discriminatory customs based on gender have become part of the social structure. Sexism – the belief that one sex is by nature superior to the other – is at the heart of gender-based discrimination.

 Long history of male dominance has led society to adopt the view that men possess natural qualities that make them superior to women. View used as justification for continued male dominance.  As with racism, sexism becomes a self- fulfilling prophecy.

 Less than 150 years ago, women in the US were second class citizens.  Some women took steps to end gender discrimination. These women were founders of the American women’s movement, which held that the sexes were socially, politically, and economically equal.

 July 1848 delegates at a women’s rights convention issued a declaration based on the Declaration of Independence that called for reforms to strengthen women’s standing in society.  Most important reform – suffrage – the right to vote.  Suffrage was not easily won even with their rallies, demonstrations, and strikes.  Congress approved the Equal Rights Amendment in 1972 but it fell 3 states short to be ratified.  Progress towards gender equality has been made in almost every area of American social life but equality has still yet been achieved.

 More women have entered the workforce but there is still a wage gap – the level of women’s income relative to that of men.  During 1960s, female workers earned between 58 and 61 cents for every dollar earned by male workers.  Today the wage gap stands at 73 cents to the dollar.  Difference in yearly median earnings of female and male full-time employees is $10,000.  Even when the incomes of men and women working in the same occupations, women consistently earned less money.  A wage gap exists in all age groups and at every level of education.

 The number of women in full- time executive, administrative, and managerial positions is increasing.  These increases indicate to some that the “glass ceiling” is beginning to crack.  The glass ceiling is the invisible barrier that prevents women from gaining upper level positions in business.

 Married women who work face a particular kind of gender inequality.  Working wives work a second shift – after their day at work, they also have household duties to complete such as cooking, cleaning, and child care.  Most wives feel their husbands should share in these tasks.  Most husbands adopt “strategies of resistance” to avoid them. For example: they do not volunteer, hoping that their wives will not ask them to help.

 Where husbands do share in the second shift, wives still do most of the work.  Women in the United States have on average at least 10 hours per week less leisure time than men.  Wives face not only a wage gap at work, but also a “leisure gap” at home.

Section 2

 Different societies place different values on age.  In preindustrial societies, the social standing of individuals is increased with age. The older members of society were viewed as sources of knowledge and the enforcers of social customs.  In industrial societies, middle-aged people hold the greatest social power. Employment is one of the major indicators of social status in industrial societies, and employment opportunities decline with age.

 Ageism – the belief that one age category is by nature superior to another age category – is at the heart of age-based role loss.  Although ageism can apply to any age group, it is most often directed toward elderly people in industrial societies. Stereotype: unproductive, cranky, and physically or mentally impaired. Reality: vast majority aged 65+ are self-sufficient, active members of society.

 American media reinforces ageism. Example: in television commercials elderly people are seldom used to sell household products, cosmetics, clothing, or automobiles. Instead they endorse products like over the counter medications, health-related devices, denture preparations, or insurance and burial plans.

 By 2050, one in every five Americans will be elderly.  Sociologists refer to this phenomena as the “graying of America.”  2 primary reasons for the graying of America: 1) advances in health care and better living conditions have resulted in more people surviving to an old age 2) variations in birthrates have changed the age structure of the United States.  Birthrates in the US rose sharply in 1946 and stayed about the same until the 1960s when they declined noticeably.  Today baby boomers are in their late 40’s and up. By 2030, all the baby boomers will have reached at least 65 years of age, thereby swelling the ranks of the elderly population to nearly 70 million.

 The changing age structure of the United States has thrust elderly people into the center of American politics.  They have become both a political force and a topic of debate.  One of the major issues of concern for older Americans is the Social Security system. It is feared that the system is not up to the task of caring for future generations of elderly people. Social Security system is funded by payroll or income taxes on workers, employers, and the self-employed to fund the benefits paid to current retirees. However, declining birthrates and longer life expectancies mean that there are fewer workers available to support the growing numbers of retirees.

 Longer life expectancies have created another challenge for the Social Security system.  Because of increasing life expectancies, the fastest growth in the elderly population is among the old (individuals aged 85 and older). Ex: in 1970 there were approx 1.4 million Americans 85+. By million million. Estimates by 2050 – 19 million.  Therefore, not only is the number of people receiving Social Security benefits increasing, but so is the length of time people receive those benefits.

 The old-old present another challenge, because they are most likely to be in the poorest health.  Medicare is the government- sponsored health-insurance plan for elderly Americans and Americans with disabilities.  Medicaid is the state and federally funded health insurance program for low-income individuals.  These programs are the sole sources of health insurance for close to one quarter of elderly Americans.

 Ways to ensure the future of Social Security have stirred much heated debate.  Some people have suggested raising the retirement age, cutting benefits, or increasing Social Security payroll taxes.

 People in the US are very concerned/frustrated over the health-care system.  People’s worries about the American health-care system focus on two major issues.  These health-care costs and the quality of the health care that people receive.  People also concerned about access to health care.

 Many factors have contributed to the rapid rise in health-care costs.  At the top of the list is hospital care, which accounts for nearly 32% of all medical expenditures.  Advances in medical technology have also affected health-care costs.  Doctors now have at their disposal more than 1,000 diagnostic tests ranging from simple blood tests to high-technology techniques.  Many doctors rely heavily on such testing in their efforts to provide the best health care possible.  Fears of malpractice lawsuits have also played a part in the increased use of these expensive diagnostic techniques.

 Another reason for rising health-care costs is increased spending on prescription drugs.  Prescription drugs are the fastest-rising cost item for many group health-insurance plans.  Drug costs have risen for several reasons. 1) drug companies have increased their spending on advertising and marketing of their products, thus driving up prices. 2) drugs are becoming the preferred for of treatment for many illnesses 3) the number of elder Americans – the leading consumers of prescription drugs – is rapidly increasing