1 I know what general area, but I’m not sure of my research question?

A good research question:  Defines the investigation  Sets boundaries  Provides direction 2

If you are finding it a challenge to generate a research topic you can:  Hone in on your passions  Use your curiosity  Look for inspiration from the creative arts  Develop ‘right brain’ skills such as concept mapping 3

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NURSING RESEARCH  Is a systematic inquiry designed to develop knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession, including nursing practice, education, administration, and informatics.

1. Research design 2. Conduction  Measure of risk  Temporal relationship between exposure and disease  Cost of study  Population size  Best when  Problems  安居木

EXPOSEDNOT EXPOSED DISEASE DEVELOPS DISEASE DOES NOT DEVELOP DISEASE DEVELOPS DISEASE DOES NOT DEVELP AND START WITH: THEN FOLLOW TO SEE IF Design of cohort study

Were exposed Were not exposed Were not exposed HAVE THE DISEASE DO NOT HAVE THE DISEASE START WITH THEN DETERMINE EXPOSURE HISTORY

NON-EXPOSED PEOPLE AND EXPOSED PEOPLE PEOPLE WITH THE DISEASE PEOPLE WITHOUT THE DISEASE AND IN A CASE-CONTROL STUDY GROUPS COMPARED ‘CASES ‘‘CONTROLS’

NON-EXPOSED PEOPLE AND EXPOSED PEOPLE PEOPLE WITH THE DISEASE PEOPLE WITHOUT THE DISEASE AND IN A CASE-CONTROL STUDY DETERMINE THE PROPORTIONS EXPOSED IN: DETERMINE INCIDENCE RATES OF DISEASE IN: CASESCONTROLS

Cohort studyCase-control study Measure of risk Relative risk Odds ratio Temporal sequence Easy to establishSometimes hard Multiple association Possible to study associations of an exposure with several disease Possible to study associations of a disease with several exposures or factors Time and cost required Long and expensive Relatively short and inexpensive Population sizeRelatively largeRelatively small Potential biasAssessment of outcomeAssessment of exposure Best when Exposure is rare, and disease is frequent among exposed Disease is rare, exposure is frequent among the diseased

Cohort study Case-control study Problems Selection of non- exposed comparison group often difficult; Changes over time in criteria and methods Selection of appropriate controls often difficult; Incomplete information on exposure

Exposed Not Exposed Develop Disease A Do not Develop Disease A B C C B Develop Disease A C B Do not Develop Disease A C B

Exposed to A Not Exposed To A Exposed to A Not Exposed To A BB BB CCCC Disease No Disease casesControls

PURPOSE OF NURSING RESEARCH  To test, refine and advance the knowledge on which improved education, clinical judgment, and cost-effective, safe, ethical nursing care rests.

DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF NURSING RESEARCH

THE ORIGIN OF NURSING RESEARCH  FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE – viewed as the person who first elevated nursing to the status of a PROFESSION, as presented in her first book NOTES ON NURSING (1859)  Believed in the importance of “naming nursing” by the use of observed data to support the need for health-care reforms.  Methodical Data gathering

 1923 – Committee for the Study of Nursing Education  Studied educational preparation of nurse teachers, administrators, public health nurses and the clinical experiences of nursing students.

 Gold Mark Report – identified many inadequacies in the educational backgrounds of the group studied and concluded that advanced educational preparation was essential.

ASSUMPTIONPOSITIVIST PARADIGM Ontologic (what is the nature of reality?) Reality exists; there is a real world driven by real natural courses Epistemologic (How is the inquirer related to those being researched?) The inquirer is independent from those being researched; findings are not influenced by the researcher Axiologic (What is the role of Values in the inquiry?) Values and biases are to be held in check; objectivity is sought Methodologic (How is knowledge obtained?) Deductive process, emphasis on discrete, specific concepts; fixed design, tight controls over context, emphasis on measured, quantitative information; statistical analysis; seeks generalization

ASSUMPTIONNATURALISTIC PARADIGM Ontologic (what is the nature of reality?) Reality is multiple and subjective, mentally constructed by individuals Epistemologic (How is the inquirer related to those being researched?) The inquirer interacts with those being researched; findings are creation of the interactive process Axiologic (What is the role of Values in the inquiry?) Subjectivity and values are inevitable and desirable Methodologic (How is knowledge obtained?) Inductive process; emphasis on entirely of some phenomenon, holistic; emerging interpretations grounded in participants’ experiences; flexible design; context-bound; emphasis on narrative information Qualitative analysis

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH  Uses deductive reasoning  Systematic  Uses control  Uses measurements  Researchers gather empirical evidence (objective in nature)  Information gathered is usually (but not always) quantitative/numerical  Uses statistical analysis  Cannot be used to answer moral or ethical questions

NATURALISTIC METHODS AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH  NATURALISTIC METHOD – attempt to deal with the issue of human complexity by exploring it directly.  Investigations place a heavy emphasis on understanding the human experience as it is lived.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH  Uses inductive reasoning  Used for theory development  Approach is flexible  Always takes place in the field  Concurrent collection and analysis of data  Gathers rich and in-depth information (subjective in nature)  Report is written in narrative form  Involves small group of people or subjects  Cannot be used to answer moral or ethical questions

 People who are being studied  Quantitative – subjects, study participants, respondents  Qualitative – informants, key informants, study participants  Sample – composed of the people being studied  Person who undertakes the research  Quantitative – researcher, investigator, scientist  Qualitative – researcher, investigator

 Research Settings – specific places where data collection occurs  Quantitative – laboratory setting, (sometimes) field settings  Example: Pierce and Clancy (2001) studied the effects of hypoxia on diaphragm activity in anesthetized rats.  Qualitative – naturalistic setting/field  Example: Carlisle (2000) studied the search for meaning in the care giving experience among informal carers of people living with HIV and AIDS. The researcher gathered in- depth information from carers in their homes and in HIV/AIDS org.

THEORIES AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS  Theory – systematic, abstract explanation of some aspect of reality  Example: Nightingale’s Environmental Nursing Theory  Conceptual Frameworks/Models – interrelated concepts or abstractions assembled together in a rational scheme by virtue of their relevance to a common theme.  Example: Betty Neuman's Health Care Systems Model

 Pieces of information obtained in the course of investigation

Research directions are not always at the full discretion of the researcher. Practicalities include:  Appropriateness of the topic  Your ability to get supervisory support  Funding opportunities and commitments 32

An ‘angle’ for your research can come from insights stemming from:  personal experience  theory  observations  contemporary issues  engagement with the literature 33

 Narrowing, clarifying, and even redefining your questions is essential to the research process.  Forming the right ‘questions’ should be seen as an iterative process that is informed by reading and doing at all stages. 34

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36 Attraction to opposite sex School ridicule Peers Media Parents Diet ads You’re so pretty!! Desire to be popular Do parents teach their daughters that worth is dependent on external beauty? Compliments Thin TV Stars Magazine Models Poor Self Image in Young Girls Size of ‘stars’ is newsworthy Weight obsessed mother You look so nice in that! Do young girls have an unrealistic perception of normal?

 Hypotheses are designed to express relationships between variables. If this is the nature of your question, a hypothesis can add to your research  If your question is more descriptive or explorative, generating a hypothesis may not be appropriate 37

A hypothesis may not be appropriate if:  You do not have a hunch or educated guess about a particular situation  You do not have a set of defined variables.  Your question centres on phenomenological description (see Chapter 9)  Your question centres on an ethnographic study of a cultural group (see Chapter 9)  Your aim is to engage in, and research, the process of collaborative change (see Chapter 10) 38

Is the question right for me?  Will the question hold my interest?  Can I manage any potential biases/subjectivities I may have? 39

Is the question right for the field?  Will the findings be considered significant?  Will it make a contribution? 40

Is the question well articulated?  Are the terms well-defined?  Are there any unchecked assumptions? 41

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage. Chapter Three42

Is the question doable?  Can information be collected in an attempt to answer the question?  Do I have the skills and expertise necessary to access this information? If not, can the skills be developed?  Will I be able to get it all done within my time constraints?  Are costs likely to exceed my budget?  Are there any potential ethics problems? 43

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage. Chapter Three44

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage. Chapter Three45

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage. Chapter Three46

Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, 2003

Copyright ©2004 BMJ Publishing Group Ltd. Thompson, C. et al. Evid Based Nurs 2004;7:68-72 The cognitive continuum.

Are plans that tell a researcher  how data are to be collected,  from whom data are to be collected,  how data will be analyzed to answer specific research questions.

Quantitative research is a formal, objective, systematic process in which numeric data are used. Qualitative research is a systematic approach used to describe and promote understanding of human experiences such as pain

United States: Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR)Agency for Health Care Policy and Research  Department of Health & Human Services  Developed many clinical guidelines to direct the EBM movement.

Does the question get the tick of approval from those in the know?  Does my supervisor think I am on the right track?  Do ‘experts’ in the field think my question is relevant/ important/ doable? 53