America’s History Seventh Edition CHAPTER 4 Teach each other about… Growth and Crisis in Colonial Society Copyright © 2011 by Bedford/St. Martin’s James A. Henretta Rebecca Edwards Robert O. Self

New England’s Freehold Society Farm Families: Women in the Household Economy 1.Husband the Head of the Household in The Well-Ordered Family (1712) Reverend Wadsworth of Boston told women that it was their duty “to love and reverence” their husband. girls learned from their mothers to be subordinate to their fathers courts prosecuted more women than men for fornication. 2. Wife as the “Helpmate” tended gardens, spun thread and yard from flax and wool, wove cloth, knitted, made candles and soap, churned butter, fermented malt for beer, preserved meats.

New England’s Freehold Society Farm Families: Women in the Household Economy 2. Wife as the “Helpmate” tended gardens, spun thread and yard from flax and wool, wove cloth, knitted, made candles and soap, churned butter, fermented malt for beer, preserved meats.

1. What is the scene depicted in this needlework stitched by Connecticut woman Prudence Punderson in the 1770s?

1. What is the scene depicted in this needlework stitched by Connecticut woman Prudence Punderson in the 1770s? (Answer: Scene depicts a New England woman—Punderson herself—sitting in a well- appointed room with a black servant and a baby and a coffin inscribed with her initials. In the image, Punderson looks to be drawing or performing needlework of some kind.)

2. What does the image reveal about the experiences of women living in New England in the eighteenth century?

2. What does the image reveal about the experiences of women living in New England in the eighteenth century? (Answer: The domestic scene was typical for women in well- to-do families. It shows the importance of motherhood, the regular presence of servants, and white women’s leisure-time activities. The existence of the amazing needlework shows that women like Punderson had the interest and time to develop their artistic talents. Presence of coffin shows that death was a regular occurrence and part of women’s daily lives.)

3. Why do you think Punderson entitled this piece The First, Second and Last Scenes of Mortality?

3. Why do you think Punderson entitled this piece The First, Second and Last Scenes of Mortality? (Answer: Piece depicts three stages of Punderson’s life—herself as a baby, a young woman, and her own death. It shows her awareness of human vulnerability and the brevity of life. Punderson had frequent bouts of ill health as a young woman and, in fact, died shortly after the birth of her first child.)

New England’s Freehold Society Farm Families: Women in the Household Economy 3. Motherhood marriage in 20s for women, given birth six to seven times by their 40s. Fear of death during childbirth and the importance of baptism for the new baby were believed to be a reason many Puritan women clung to the church even when fewer men were attending. 4. Restrictions no equality within the church, most women accepted such restrictions as social norms.

New England’s Freehold Society Farm Families: Women in the Household Economy 4. Restrictions no equality within the church, most women accepted such restrictions as social norms. What do you notice about the seating arrangement?

New England’s Freehold Society B. Farm Property: Inheritance 1.Family Authority emigrants wanted farms to provide for them and their grown children landless children could be placed as indentured servants until age 18 or 21 2.Children of Wealthy Parents marriage portion between 23 and 25, consisted of land, livestock, or farm equipment; enabled parents to choose their children’s spouses because economic concerns outweighed love in the long-term interests of the extended family.

New England’s Freehold Society B. Farm Property: Inheritance 1.Family Authority landless men hoped to climb from laborer to tenant to freeholder. 2.Childre n of Wealth y Parents marriage portion between 23 and 25, consisted of land, livestock, or farm equipment ; enabled parents to choose their children’s spouses because economic concerns outweighe d love in the long- term interests of the extended family.

New England’s Freehold Society B. Farm Property: Inheritance 2. Children of Wealthy Parents m arriage portion between 23 and 25, consisted of land, livestock, or farm equipment enabled parents to choose their children’s spouses because economic concerns outweighed love in the long-term interests of the extended family.

New England’s Freehold Society B. Farm Property: Inheritance 3. Marriage Marriage – bride gave her husband legal ownership of her property she received a dower right to use but not sell one-third of the property if her husband died this portion went to her children if she died or remarried. 4. Father’s Duty – provide an inheritance for children or lose status in the community; some men moved their families to the frontier where land was cheap and abundant; on the frontier these men created communities of independent property owners.

New England’s Freehold Society B. Farm Property: Inheritance 4. Father’s Duty provide an inheritance for children or lose status in the community some men moved their families to the frontier where land was cheap and abundant on the frontier these men created communities of independent property owners.

New England’s Freehold Society C.Freehold Society in Crisis 1.Population Increase rapid natural increase doubled New England’s population each generation from 100,000 people in Puritan colonies in 1700 to nearly 400,000 in 1750 resulted in the division and subdivision of family farms to 50 acres or less. QUESTION: What is the net effect on land inheritances of this explosive population growth?

New England’s Freehold Society C.Freehold Society in Crisis 1.Population Increase ANSWER: resulted in the division and subdivision of family farms to 50 acres or less. This is 200 acres

New England’s Freehold Society C.Freehold Society in Crisis 1.Population Increase A generation later the 200 acres becomes 100 acres

New England’s Freehold Society C.Freehold Society in Crisis 1.Population Increase Another generation later and the 100 acres becomes 50 acres. At this point you look west because you need land to provide an inheritance for children or lose status in the community some men moved their families to the frontier where land was cheap and abundant

New England’s Freehold Society C.Freehold Society in Crisis 2. Changes in Family Life parents could now only provide one child with an inheritance of land, which resulted in parents having less control over their children increase in premarital sex and marriages arranged quickly due to pregnancy couples tried to limit family size or moved their new families into the frontiers of central Massachusetts, western Connecticut, and New Hampshire and Vermont.

New England’s Freehold Society C.Freehold Society in Crisis 2. Changes in Family Life Wheat and barley were replaced with corn because it could feed people and provide nourishment for cattle and pigs.

New England’s Freehold Society C. Freehold Society in Crisis 3. “Household Mode of Production” system of community exchange in which families swapped labor and goods participants recorded debits and credits and “balanced” their accounts by exchanging only small amounts of currency, which was in short supply.

Toward a New Society: The Middle Colonies, A. Economic Growth and Social Inequality 1.Tenancy in New York to attract migrants to an area inhabited largely by wealthy Dutch and English families, landowners granted long leases and the rights to sell improvements (houses, barns) to subsequent tenants population grew slowly because migrants desired to own land new tools such as the cradle scythe (1750s) increased the amount of grain produced but not enough to enable quick profits and land ownership.

Toward a New Society: The Middle Colonies, A. Economic Growth and Social Inequality 2. Conflict in Quaker Pennsylvania early Quakers had settled in Pennsylvania and New Jersey building simple homes and getting by with little by 1760s wealthy landowners in eastern Pennsylvania were using slaves and poor immigrants on their farms a new class of “agricultural capitalists” was forming out of men who were landlords, speculators, storekeepers, and large-scale farmers and whose presence marked the growing divisions between the social classes in the region. Simple home vs. wealthy landowners (w/ slaves and poor immigrants)

Toward a New Society: The Middle Colonies, A. Economic Growth and Social Inequality 3.Landlessness and Crime 50% of white men in the Middle Atlantic colonies owned no land though they desired to be landowners crime rose after 1720 criminals tended to be propertyless, indentured servants, or migrants of Scots- Irish descent.

Population Growth, Wheat Prices, and British Imports in the Middle Atlantic Colonies Wheat prices doubled in Philadelphia between 1720 and 1770 as demand swelled both in Europe and the West Indies The income earned from the exports of grain and flour paid for English manufactures, which the settlers in the Middle Colonies imported in large quantities after 1750.

The Hudson River Manors Dutch and English manorial lords owned much of the fertile east bank of the Hudson River, where they leased farms on perpetual contracts to German tenants and refused to sell land to freehold-seeking migrants from overcrowded New England. This powerful landed elite produced aristocratic-minded Patriot leaders such as Gouverneur Morris and Robert Livingston, as well as prominent American families such as the Roosevelts.

Toward a New Society: The Middle Colonies, B. Cultural Diversity 1.Middle Colonies Not a “Melting pot” city of Philadelphia had more than 12 religious denominations present in 1748 migrants married within their ethnic groups (Huguenots were an exception) large population of wealthy Quakers helped to shape the culture of Pennsylvania and western New Jersey pacifists purchased land from Native Americans rather than seizing it

Toward a New Society: The Middle Colonies, B. Cultural Diversity 1.Middle Colonies Not a “Melting pot” advocated the abolition of slavery.

Toward a New Society: The Middle Colonies, B. Cultural Diversity 2. The German Influx more than 100,000 German migrants settled in the Pennsylvania/western New Jersey region in the 17th and 18th centuries100,000 German migrants settled in the Pennsylvania/western settled in Lutheran and Reformed communities discouraged from marrying outside of their ethnicity advocated married women having legal rights similar to in Germany (property and will-writing). “Dear God in Heaven, Leave Us Germans What We Are”

Toward a New Society: The Middle Colonies, B. Cultural Diversity 3.Scots-Irish Settlers largest group of migrants came from Ireland (115,000 included Catholics, Scots, and Presbyterians who had faced religious and economic repression by the English settled in Pennsylvania region for religious tolerance retained cultural practices.

Estimated European Migration to the British Mainland Colonies, 1700–1780 After 1720, European migration to British North America increased dramatically, peaking between 1740 and 1780, when more than 264,000 settlers arrived in the mainland colonies. Emigration from Germany peaked in the 1740s, but the number of migrants from Ireland, Scotland, England, and Wales continued to increase during the 1760s and early 1770s. Most migrants, including those from Ireland, were Protestants.

Ethnic and Racial Diversity in the British Colonies, 1775 In 1700, most colonists in British North America were of English origin by 1775, settlers of English descent constituted only about 50 percent of the total population. African Americans now accounted for one-third of the residents of the South, while tens of thousands of German and Scots-Irish migrants added ethnic and religious diversity in the Middle colonies, the southern backcountry, and northern New England

Toward a New Society: The Middle Colonies, C. Religious Identity and Political Conflict 1. Religious Diversity Religious Diversity – Orthodox church officials of several religions brought intolerance to the colonies in America, religious groups enforced acceptable behavior through communal self-discipline Quaker marriage rules maintained that couples have land and livestock Quaker marriage rules wealthy Quakers encouraged marriage among their children while the poor remained single or married later in life as Quaker population declined by 1750s, religious groups seeking increased political power (Lutherans and Baptists) had bitter conflicts raging amongst them.

Religious Diversity in 1750 By 1750, religious diversity was on the rise, not only in the multiethnic Middle colonies but in all of British North America Baptists had increased their numbers in New England, long the stronghold of Congregationalists, and would soon become important in Virginia. Already there were considerable numbers of Presbyterians, Lutherans, and German Reformed in the South, where Anglicanism was the established religion.

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, A. The Enlightenment in America 1. The European Enlightenment emphasis on the power of human reason appealed to urban artisans, well- educated from merchant and planter families 17th-century teachings of Copernicus (earth traveled around the sun) philosophers used empirical research and scientific reasoning to study social institutions and human behavior four fundamental principles: law-like order of the natural world, power of human reason, natural rights of individuals (self-government) and the improvement of society through progress.

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, A. The Enlightenment in America 1. The European Enlightenment 17th-century teachings of Copernicus (earth traveled around the sun) philosophers used empirical research and scientific reasoning to study social institutions and human behavior four fundamental principles: law-like order of the natural world, power of human reason, natural rights of individuals (self- government) and the improvement of society through progress.

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, A. The Enlightenment in America 1. The European Enlightenment philosophers used empirical research and scientific reasoning to study social institutions and human behavior four fundamental principles: law- like order of the natural world, power of human reason, natural rights of individuals (self- government) and the improvement of society through progress.

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, A. The Enlightenment in America 2. John Locke English philosopher wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) stressing the importance of environment and experience on human beliefs and behavior change was possible through education, thought, and action Two Treatises on Government (1690) argued that power did not come from divine right but from social compacts with the people who have the power to change their government.

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, A. The Enlightenment in America 2. John Locke Two Treatises on Government (1690) argued that power did not come from divine right but from social compacts with the people who have the power to change their government.

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, A. The Enlightenment in America 3.Franklin’s Contributions (b. 1706, Boston) shaped by Enlightenment literature and not the Bible a “deist” – believed that a Supreme Being (Grand Architect) had created the world, which operated by natural laws rejected divinity.

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, B. American Pietism and the Great Awakening 1.Pietism an evangelical Christian movement that stressed a personal relationship with God, attracted farmers and urban laborers an appeal to “hearts rather than minds.” 2.Jonathan Edwards’s Calvinism (b. 1703) in the Connecticut River Valley, Edwards preached the helplessness of men and women; “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1741), spoke of “Hell’s wide gaping mouth” and his promotion of conversions; successfully incited religious fervor in the region.Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God 3. Whitefield’s Great Awakening

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, B. American Pietism and the Great Awakening Jonathan Edwards’s Calvinism (b. 1703) in the Connecticut River Valley, Edwards preached the helplessness of men and women “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1741), spoke of “Hell’s wide gaping mouth” and his promotion of conversionsSinners in the Hands of an Angry God successfully incited religious fervor in the region. 3. Whitefield’s Great Awakening

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, B. American Pietism and the Great Awakening Jonathan Edwards’s Calvinism (b. 1703) “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1741), spoke of “Hell’s wide gaping mouth” and his promotion of conversionsSinners in the Hands of an Angry God successfully incited religious fervor in the region. 3. Whitefield’s Great Awakening

Excerpt from Jonathan Edwards’s Calvinism “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God He is not only able to cast wicked men into hell, but he can most easily do it. Sometimes an earthly prince meets with a great deal of difficulty to subdue a rebel, that has found means to fortify himself, and has made himself strong by the numbers of his followers. But it is not so with God. There is no fortress that is any defense from the power of God. Though hand join in hand, and vast multitudes of God's enemies combine and associate themselves, they are easily broken in pieces: they are as great heaps of light chaff before the whirlwind; or large quantities of dry stubble before devouring flames. We find it easy to tread on and crush a worm that we see crawling on the earth; so 'tis easy for us to cut or singe a slender thread that anything hangs by; thus easy is it for God when he pleases to cast his enemies down to hell. What are we, that we should think to stand before him, at whose rebuke the earth trembles, and before whom the rocks are thrown down?

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, B. American Pietism and the Great Awakening 3.Whitefield’s Great AwakeningWhitefield’s Great Awakening spoke from memory about the power of God and the need to seek salvation followers were called “New Lights” for their claim that they felt a new light in them after hearing Whitefield preach.

1. Describe the central action of this image? Who are the people depicted, and what are they doing?

(Answer: Central figure is George Whitefield, the English minister whose compelling preaching transformed the local revivals of the 1730s into the Great Awakening. He is preaching without notes, in a dramatic fashion, and attracting a large audience. Most of the listeners are rapt, and a few, such as the woman crossing her hands over her chest, appear to be overcome.)

2. What does the image suggest about who was attracted by Whitefield’s appearances and his message?

Answer: The crowd is diverse in terms of gender, age, and social class, showing that a variety of American colonists attended Whitefield’s revivals and were influenced by his sermons.

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, C. Religious Upheaval in the North 1. Old Lights and New Lights Old Lights (conservative ministers) condemned the crying and fainting of New Lights in revival meetings and the New Light practice of women speaking in public New Lights withheld tax payments from Old Light churches new enthusiasm for religion led to the founding of schools for ministers (Princeton, Columbia, Brown, and Rutgers) people felt new power to be part of the religious experience.

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, C. Religious Upheaval in the North 1. Old Lights and New Lights Old Lights (conservative ministers) condemned the crying and fainting of New Lights in revival meetings and the New Light practice of women speaking in public New Lights withheld tax payments from Old Light churches new enthusiasm for religion led to the founding of schools for ministers (Princeton, Columbia, Brown, and Rutgers) people felt new power to be part of the religious experience.

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, C. Religious Upheaval in the North 1. Old Lights and New Lights new enthusiasm for religion led to the founding of schools for ministers (Princeton, Columbia, Brown, and Rutgers) people felt new power to be part of the religious experience. “Under the Protection of God She Flourishes”

Church Growth by Denomination, 1700–1780 In 1700, and again in 1740, the Congregationalist and Anglican churches had the most members. By 1780, however, largely because of their enthusiastic evangelical message, Presbyterian and Baptist congregations outnumbered those of the Anglicans. The growth of immigrant denominations, such as the German Reformed and Lutheran, was equally impressive.

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, D. Social and Religious Conflict in the South 1. The Presbyterian RevivalPresbyterian New Lights challenged the Church of England in the south ritual displays of wealth became less meaningful as competition existed between the churches Virginia governor denounced New Lights as offering “false teachings.” The Presbyterian Cross explained

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, D. Social and Religious Conflict in the South 2. The Baptist InsurgencyBaptist 1760s thousands of white farmers converted to Baptist (adult baptism) Baptist churches continued to grow in spite of these pressures ministers spread teachings among slaves and began to shrink the cultural divide between white and black.

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, D. Social and Religious Conflict in the South 2. The Baptist InsurgencyBaptist Whitefield encouraged slaveholders to bring the enslaved to church but many whites opposed free-blacks in Virginia embraced the church’s teachings Baptist churches continued to grow in spite of these pressures ministers spread teachings among slaves and began to shrink the cultural divide between white and black.

The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, A. The French and Indian War The French and Indian War 1. The Albany Congress (1754) delegates from British colonies met in Albany to discuss relations with the Iroquois and French expansion Franklin proposed a “Plan of Union” with a continental assembly to manage trade, Indian policy, and defense in the western territories Franklin’s effort failed war between France and England seemed imminent. 2. The War Hawks Win Pitt and Halifax in England wanted a war in North America with the French; fighting began June 1755; expanded to Europe by 1756 with Britain vowing to destroy France’s ability to compete economically.

The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, A. The French and Indian War The French and Indian War 1. The Albany Congress Franklin proposed a “Plan of Union” with a continental assembly to manage trade, Indian policy, and defense in the western territories Franklin’s effort failed war between France and England seemed imminent. 2. The War Hawks Win Pitt and Halifax in England wanted a war in North America with the French; fighting began June 1755; expanded to Europe by 1756 with Britain vowing to destroy France’s ability to compete economically.

European Spheres of Influence in North America, 1754 In the mid-eighteenth century, France, Spain, and the British-owned Hudson Bay Company laid claim to the vast areas of North America still inhabited primarily by Indian peoples. British settlers had already occupied much of the land east of the Appalachian Mountains. To safeguard their lands west of the mountains, Native Americans played off one European power against another. As a British official remarked: “To preserve the Ballance between us and the French is the great ruling Principle of Modern Indian Politics.” When Britain expelled France from North America in 1763, Indians had to face encroaching Anglo-American settlers on their own.

The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, (Key events: British war against French in America, surge in trade increases American debt to British, and an increase in westward migration leads to violence and rebellion.) B. The Great War for Empire 1.The Seven Years War ( )The Seven Years War Pitt directed the war successfully from England, controlling both the commercial and military strategies British had stunning successes and acquired Cuba and the Philippines from Spain, French Senegal, Martinique and Guadeloupe (eventually returned to France) Treaty of Paris ending the war gave Britain control of over half of North America, including French Canada. 2. Pontiac’s Rebellion

The Anglo-American Conquest of New France After full-scale war with France began in 1756, it took almost three years for the British ministry to equip colonial forces and dispatch a sizable army to far-off America. In 1758, British and colonial troops attacked the heartland of New France, capturing Quebec in 1759 and Montreal in This conquest both united and divided the allies. Colonists celebrated the great victory: “The Illuminations and Fireworks exceeded any that had been exhibited before,” reported the South Carolina Gazette. However, British officers had little respect for colonial soldiers. Said one, “[They are] the dirtiest, most contemptible, cowardly dogs you can conceive.”

1. Who is the figure in this portrait?

1. Who is the figure in this portrait? (Answer: Mohawk Chief Hendrick, British ally in Seven Years’ War.)

2. How did Hendrick’s clothing express his status and allegiances?

2. How did Hendrick’s clothing express his status and allegiances? (Answer: Hendrick’s dress is a sign of honor bestowed upon him—British recognition of his support during war and an elevation of his regular status. His presentation with a tomahawk and wampum belt reveals that both the subject and the artist also valued his status as a Mohawk warrior.)

3. This portrait was painted in England. Do you think an American artist might have painted Hendrick differently?

3. This portrait was painted in England. Do you think an American artist might have painted Hendrick differently? (Answer: American artist might have painted Hendrick similarly—he was an ally of Americans and British and both sides would want to honor him.)

The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, B. The Great War for Empire 2.Pontiac’s RebellionPontiac’s Rebellion British acquisitions in North America frightened the Native American population, who believed that they would lose more territory to Anglo- American migrants inspired by a prophet (Neolin) Pontiac (Ottawa Chief) with a group of loosely affiliated tribes launched an uprising against the British though Pontiac’s rebellion was put down, the Proclamation of 1763 prohibited white settlement west of the Appalachians Proclamation of 1763 ignored by colonists.

The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, B. The Great War for Empire 2.Pontiac’s RebellionPontiac’s Rebellion inspired by a prophet (Neolin) Pontiac (Ottawa Chief) with a group of loosely affiliated tribes launched an uprising against the British

The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, B. The Great War for Empire 2.Pontiac’s RebellionPontiac’s Rebellion though Pontiac’s rebellion was put down, the Proclamation of 1763 prohibited white settlement west of the AppalachiansProclamation of 1763 ignored by colonists.

The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, C. British Industrial Growth and the Consumer Revolution 1.Resources since 1700 the dominant commercial power in Atlantic and Indian Oceans first nation to use manufacturing technology and work discipline to expand output mechanical power of water mills and steam engines (lathes for wood, jennies and looms for textiles, hammers for iron forging).

The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, C. British Industrial Growth and the Consumer Revolution 1.Resources mechanical power of water mills and steam engines

The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, C. British Industrial Growth and the Consumer Revolution 1.Resources lathes for wood

The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, C. British Industrial Growth and the Consumer Revolution 1.Resources jennies and looms for textiles

The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, C. British Industrial Growth and the Consumer Revolution 1.Resources hammers for iron forging

2.American Consumers purchasing 30% of all British exports by exporting tobacco, rice, indigo, and wheat from the colonies New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia supplied wheat to Europeans profits from exports enabled colonists to buy goods from England Americans became more dependent on overseas credit and markets.

The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, D. The Struggle for Land in the East 1.Land Disputes rising population of colonies meant more land needed disputes over land broke out in Hudson River Valley of New York, in New Jersey, and in some southern colonies tenant uprisings courts favored wealthy land owner increasingly, the landless moved west to the Appalachian Mountains region.

Mainland Population and British Imports Around 1750, British imports were growing at a faster rate than the American population, indicating that the colonists were consuming more per capita. But Americans went into debt to pay for these goods, running an annual trade deficit with their British suppliers that by 1772 created a cumulative debt of £2 million.

1. What was the purpose of this image when it was created in the 18th century?

Answer: advertisement for tobacco

2. What does the image tell the audience about the origin of this product?

Answer: ship indicates that it has been imported people depicted in advertisement as being part of the production process appear to be Native American with skin darker than Englishmen and dress consistent with the warm climates of the southern colonies of North America drawings of housing-styles consistent with earlier European depictions of native villages.)

3. What aspects of life in the tobacco fields of North America does the advertisement not reveal to consumers?

Answer: no indication of whether production was completed or aided by African or African-American slave labor no indication of the hardship of life in the southern colonies [disease, hard labor] of North America in this period leading to short life expectancies.

The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, E. Western Rebels and Regulators (Movement of landless into the west meant clashes over Indian policies, political representation, and debts.) 1.The South Carolina RegulatorsSouth Carolina Regulators during Seven Years War, Anglo-American and Scottish settlers in South Carolina clashed with Cherokee so-called Regulators were vigilante landowners who demanded that South Carolina’s eastern government provide courts for the western part of the colony, fairer taxation and representation for those who had settled the region unsuccessful in gaining power. 2. Civil Strife in North Carolina

IV. The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, E. Western Rebels and Regulators 2.Civil Strife in North CarolinaCivil Strife in North Carolina 1766 saw significant economic crisis in North Carolina as tobacco prices fell to avoid losing their land mobs of farmers (also called “Regulators”) closed the courts and intimidated judges proposed legislation to lower their taxes May 1771 North Carolina’s royal governor sought to suppress the rebellion violence ensued, ending with 30 men dead and seven Regulator leaders executed.

Westward Expansion and Land Conflicts, 1750–1775 Between 1750 and 1775, the mainland colonial population more than doubled— from 1.2 million to 2.5 million—triggering westward migrations and legal battles over land, which had become increasingly valuable. Violence broke out in eastern areas, where tenant farmers and smallholders contested landlords’ property claims based on ancient titles; and in the backcountry, where migrating settlers fought with Indians, rival claimants, and the officials of eastern- dominated governments.