Wasting sperm: The cultural context of condom use among the Maasai in Northern Tanzania Dr Ernestina Coast London School of Economics Fieldwork funded by DANIDA

Sexuality “A social construct of a biological drive” Zeidenstein & Moore, 1995:2 “Sexuality has different meanings for different people in different contexts” Dixon-Mueller (1993: 273)

…a function of… Age Gender Ethnicity Race Patronage Physical strength Marital status Ideology Expectations Desire Access to material and social resources Concepts of masculinity and femininity

Sexual behaviour not sexuality Why? Condom use Quantifiable Decontextualised

…at odds with Reproductive health approach Agency Institution Perceptions and their construction

Quick review of UNAIDS www Search terms “sperm” and “semen” spermicides (1) questionnaire question (1) technical information (including condom use) (22) knowledge levels (1) cultural context of semen (1)

Significance of sperm “the release of semen into a woman not only fulfils a man’s productive role, it is also seen as important in satisfying the woman. Both sexes say it makes her feel ‘sweeter and warmer’ after coitus” Bond & Dover (1997) (migrant workers in Zambia)

Benefits Bangadesh - “a tonic” for women Rahman et al (1980) Peru – “baby’s development is aided with additional sperm” Maynard-Tucker (1989) UK (1920s) “an elixir for women’s health” Kirk (1996)

A framework (Dixon-Mueller, 1993) Behavioural and objective - Sexual partnerships - Sexual acts Physiological or cultural and subjective - Sexual meanings - Sexual drives

Methods 4 focus group discussions Individual questionnaires (n=35) Stratified by sex Individual questionnaires (n=35) Ethnographies Key informant interviews

Percent (n=36) Sex Male Female 53 47 Marital status Married Widowed Never-married 75 10 15 Age group 20-29 30-39 40-49 >49 43 29 20 8 Education None Less than primary Complete primary 9-11 years 59 3 32 6

“An elephant in your path” or Condoms and… Myths and rumours Quality of sex Fertility Non-Maasai

Myths and rumours “I do not believe that they will work – the liquid will escape. Anyway, is it not possible for the liquid of the woman to pass through to the man?” (F, married, 31 years, 2 children, no schooling)

“I don’t believe that they work – they’re too thin and easy to break “I don’t believe that they work – they’re too thin and easy to break. Besides, what happens if they break inside the woman and cause her problems?” (F, married, 40s, 7 children, no schooling)

I am afraid to use something like that because it can burst or get left inside the woman, and might cause disease” (M, 42 years, 2 wives, 7 children, completed primary school)

“I don’t think that they can work – the high temperature in bodies will move the disease between people whatever you do” (M, 34 years, 1 wife, no children, no schooling)

“I heard a rumour that condoms in Dar Es Salaam were thrown away because condoms were full of disease. Besides, they can tighten and cause an injury to the man…they are too thin and will break anyway, so what is the point?” (M, 26 years, 1 wife, no children, 11 years schooling)

“Where is the proof that condoms can work “Where is the proof that condoms can work? If it is so, then why are so many people dying in the towns? Condoms are everywhere – they are a big business – you see them everywhere in the towns”

Influence of faith-based organisations

Quality of sex “It is shameful to see my boyfriend wearing something between me and him” “What about the enjoyment for the women? They need what we can give them”

Fertility “The husband would make a quarrel with his wife and fight with her and say ‘Why do you not want a child from me?’” “Even if a young girl gets this disease, she will still have a baby, so it is God telling you to have children, but just die sooner”

“What do I do if my wife says that we need to get more children?” “If you are looking for children than you cannot use condoms.”

Perceptions – HIV as non-Maasai “They do not directly say it will attack the Maasai, so other people must have brought it” Circumcision

Perceptions …of non-Maasai about Maasai Traditional Conservative Fierce warrior Recalcitrant pastoralist “Fresh from the bush”

ABC is not as simple as