Psychology © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. CHAPTER 14 Theories of Personality

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Personality and Traits Defining personality and traits –Personality Distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual. –Trait A characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychodynamic Theories of Personality LO14.1 Explain why Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis is called psychodynamic. Psychodynamic theories of personality –Psychoanalysis A theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud; it emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts. –Psychodynamic theories Theories that explain behavior and personality in terms of unconscious energy dynamics within the individual.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.2 Describe the structure of personality according to psychoanalysis, and explain the main features of each component of that structure. The structure of personality –Id: Part of the personality containing inherited psychic energy, particularly sexual and aggressive instincts. –Ego: Part of the personality that represents reason, good sense, and rational self-control. –Superego: Part of the personality that represents conscience, morality, and social standards.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.3 List five psychological defense mechanisms, giving a definition and example of each. Defense mechanisms –Methods used by the ego to prevent unconscious anxiety or threatening thoughts from entering consciousness 1.Repression 2.Projection 3.Displacement 4.Regression 5.Denial

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.4 Discuss the five stages of psychosexual development, and identify the hallmarks of each stage. Personality development –Freud’s stages Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital –Fixation occurs when stages aren’t resolved successfully.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.5 Discuss current views of Freud’s theory of personality, noting some aspects of the theory that remain relevant, and some that have been discarded. Criticism of Freud’s stages –Scientifically untestable Failed to be supported Ignored all evidence disconfirming his ideas –Positive side: Welcomed women into psychoanalysis Argued homosexuality was neither a sin nor a perversion

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.6 Explain Jung’s notion of archetypes. Jungian theory –Collective unconscious The universal memories, symbols, and experiences of humankind, represented in the symbols, stories, and images (archetypes) that occur across all cultures. –Archetypes Universal, symbolic images that appear in myths, art, stories, and dreams; to Jungians, they reflect the collective unconscious. Two important archetypes are maleness and femaleness, which Jung believed existed in both sexes.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.7 Describe the basic principles of the object-relations school, and discuss how they differ from Freud’s approach to personality. The Object-Relations School –Emphasizes the importance of the infant’s first two years of life and the baby’s formative relationships, especially with their mother. –Emphasizes children’s needs for a powerful mother and to be in relationships.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.8 Summarize three ways in which psychodynamic theories falter under scientific scrutiny. Evaluating psychodynamic theories –Three scientific failings Violating the principle of falsifiability Drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients Basing theories of personality development on the retrospective accounts of adults

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Modern Study of Personality LO14.9 Outline some ways in which objective personality inventories differ from popular personality tests used in business, dating, or other areas. The modern study of personality: Popular personality tests –Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Popular in business, at motivational seminars, and with matchmaking services Assigns people to 1 of 16 different types, depending on how the individual scores on the dimensions of introverted or extroverted, logical or intuitive Low reliability –Objective tests (inventories) –Standardized questionnaires requiring written responses; they typically include scales on which people are asked to rate themselves.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Modern Study of Personality LO14.9 Outline some ways in which objective personality inventories differ from popular personality tests used in business, dating, or other areas. The modern study of personality: Popular personality tests –Objective tests (inventories) Standardized questionnaires requiring written responses; they typically include scales on which people are asked to rate themselves.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Modern Study of Personality LO14.9 Outline some ways in which objective personality inventories differ from popular personality tests used in business, dating, or other areas. Objective personality scales –Answer a series of questions about self “I am easily embarrassed”True or False “I like to go to parties”True or False –Assumes that you can accurately report –No right or wrong answers –From responses, develop an account of you called a personality profile

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Modern Study of Personality, cont’ LO14.10 List the Big Five personality traits, and describe the characteristics of each one. Core personality traits –Extroversion vs. introversion –Neuroticism vs. emotional stability –Agreeableness vs. antagonism –Conscientiousness vs. impulsivity –Openness to experience vs. resistance to new experience

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Modern Study of Personality, cont’ LO14.10 List the Big Five personality traits, and describe the characteristics of each one. Consistency and change in personality

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Modern Study of Personality, cont’ LO14.10 List the Big Five personality traits, and describe the characteristics of each one. Genetic influences on personality –Researchers measure genetic contributions to personality in three ways: Studying personality traits in other species Studying the temperaments of human infants and children Doing heritability studies of twins and adopted individuals

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Modern Study of Personality, cont’ LO14.11 Define what temperaments are, and discuss how they relate to personality traits. Heredity and temperament –Temperaments Physiological dispositions to respond to the environment in certain ways Present in infancy, assumed to be innate –Includes Reactivity Soothability Positive and negative emotionality

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Modern Study of Personality, cont’ LO14.12 Explain how twin studies can be used to estimate the heritability of personality traits. Heredity and traits –Heritability: A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group –Heritability of personality traits is about 50% Within a group of people, about 50% of the variation associated with a given trait is attributable to genetic differences among individuals in the group. –Genetic predisposition is not genetic inevitability.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Modern Study of Personality, cont’ LO14.12 Explain how twin studies can be used to estimate the heritability of personality traits. Environmental influences on personality –Relative influence of three aspects of the environment Particular situations you find yourself in How your parents treat you Who your peers are

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Environmental Influences on Personality LO14.13 Explain how reciprocal determinism and the nonshared environment contribute to our understanding of how traits and behavior can be shaped by the environment. Reciprocal determinism –Two-way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Environmental Influences on Personality LO14.13 Explain how reciprocal determinism and the nonshared environment contribute to our understanding of how traits and behavior can be shaped by the environment. Non-shared environment –Unique aspects of a person’s environment and experience that are not shared with family members.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Environmental Influences, cont’ LO14.14 Summarize three lines of evidence that suggest parental influence over children’s personality development is limited. The power of parents –The shared environment of the home has little influence on personality traits. The non-shared environment is a more important influence. –Few parents have a single child-rearing style that is consistent over time and that they use with all their children. –Even when parents try to be consistent, there may be little relation between what they do and how their children turn out.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Environmental Influences, cont’ LO14.15 Discuss some ways in which peers influence the development of personality in children. The power of peers –Peers play a tremendous role in shaping our personality traits and behavior, causing us to emphasize some attributes or abilities and downplay others. –Our temperaments and dispositions also cause us to select particular peer groups (if they are available) instead of others, and our temperaments influence how we behave within the group.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Cultural Influences on Personality LO14.16 Compare individualist and collectivist cultures, and describe some average personality differences between them. Cultural influences on personality –Culture A program of shared rules that govern the behavior of members of a community or society. A set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most members of that community.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Cultural Influences on Personality LO14.16 Compare individualist and collectivist cultures, and describe some average personality differences between them. Culture, values, and traits –Individualist cultures Cultures in which the self is regarded as autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others. –Collectivist cultures Cultures in which the self is regarded as embedded in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishes.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Cultural Influences, cont’ LO14.17 Describe three traits which show considerable cultural variability. Aggressiveness –Emphasis on aggressiveness and vigilance in herding cultures, creates culture of honor. –Used to explain increased likelihood of fighting in the South and the West, versus the North and Midwest.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Cultural Influences, cont’ LO14.17 Describe three traits which show considerable cultural variability. Aggression and cultures of honor

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Cultural Influences, cont’ LO14.18 Evaluate some pros and cons of the cultural approach to understanding personality. Evaluating cultural approaches –Cultural psychologists face the problem of how to describe cultural influences on personality without oversimplifying or stereotyping. –People vary according to their temperaments, beliefs, and learning histories, and this variation occurs within every culture.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Inner Experience LO14.19 Describe the core humanist ideas advanced by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May. The inner experience –The sum total of our personality is based on temperamental dispositions, our tough or fortunate experiences, and how our parents treated us.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Inner Experience LO14.19 Describe the core humanist ideas advanced by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May. Abraham Maslow –Humanistic psychology A psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential. –Peak experiences Rare moments of rapture caused by the attainment of excellence or the experience of beauty. –Self-actualization Striving for a life that is meaningful, challenging, and satisfying.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Inner Experience LO14.19 Describe the core humanist ideas advanced by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May. Carl Rogers –Unconditional positive regard Love or support given to another person with no conditions attached. –Conditional positive regard A situation in which the acceptance and love one receives from significant others is contingent upon one’s behavior.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Inner Experience LO14.19 Describe the core humanist ideas advanced by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May. Rollo May –Shared with humanists the belief in free will and freedom of choice but also emphasized loneliness, anxiety, and alienation. –Existentialism A philosophical approach that emphasizes the inevitable dilemmas and challenges of human existence.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Inner Experience, cont’ LO14.20 Discuss how the narrative approach to personality hinges on answering the central question, “Who am I?” Narrative approaches –Life narrative The story that each of us develops over time to explain ourselves and make meaning of everything that has happened to us. These stories are the essence of your personality, capturing everything that has happened to you and all the factors that affect your biology, psychology, and relationships.

© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Inner Experience, cont’ LO14.21 Summarize the shortcomings of the humanist approach to personality, and identify some areas of substantial contribution. Evaluating humanist and narrative approaches –Hard to operationally define many of the concepts –Added balance to the study of personality –Encouraged others to focus on “positive psychology” –Fostered new appreciation for resilience