Culture and Gender Part 1

Definitions  Before we get into how culture influences gender dynamics, it’s important that we attempt to clarify some misconceptions. Let’s start with basic definitions of key terms.  Sex  Sex roles  Sexual Identity  Gender  Gender role  Gender Identity  Gender Stereotypes

Definitions (cont.)  Sex - the biological and physiological differences between men and women.  Sex Roles - the behaviors and patterns of activities men and women may engage in that are directly related to their biological differences.  Sexual Identity - the degree of awareness and recognition of sex and sex roles.  Gender - behaviors or patterns of activities that a society or culture deems appropriate for men and women.

Definitions (cont.)  Gender Role - the degree to which a person adopts the gender-specific behaviors ascribed by his or her culture.  Gender Identity - the degree to which a person has awareness or recognition that he or she adopts a particular gender role.  Gender Stereotypes - the psychological or behavioral characteristics typically associated with men and women.

I ntroductory Comments  Who does what?  It is clear that men and women perform different tasks in most cultures.  Hence, division of labor between the man and women, among other things, is said to be culturally determined.

I ntro Comments (cont.)  A prevalent view regarding gender-linked behavior is that the qualities cultures associate with masculinity or femininity are not innately male or female.  These are socially construed roles.  Sandra Bem is a leading expert on the social construction of gender roles. Her work on androgyny is particularly noteworthy.

Gender Schema  According to Sandra Bem, our attitudes and behaviors are based on our “gender schema” which she defines as a cognitive network of assumptions about the personalities and moral qualities of men and women.

Gender Ideologies  David Gilmore, the author of “Manhood in the Making” (1991), has proposed that we use “gender ideologies” to better understand gender differences.  He sees internalized gender ideologies as the collective representations that pressure men and women into acting in certain ways.

THE IMPACT OF GENDER AND CULTURE TO PSYCHOLOGY

 Parallels between impact of gender and culture on psychology  Psychological research years ago conducted on men which raised questions about whether it was applicable to women  Women were included as participants  Research on gender differences  Similar for research on cultural differences

SEX AND GENDER ACROSS CULTURES

The Relationship between Sex and Gender across Cultures  Differences in sex roles exist universally  Georgas et al. (2006) study on 27 countries found that women did most of housework  Fathers concerned with finances, expressive issues, childcare in all countries  Mothers concerned with childcare only in less- affluent countries  Cultures differ in type and differentiation encouraged between sexes; gender, gender roles, gender-role ideologies and gender stereotypes

CULTURE, GENDER ROLES, and STEREOTYPES

Culture and Gender Stereotypes  Williams and Best (1982) study of 30 countries found high pancultural agreement on adjectives used to describe males and females  In all countries, adjectives associated with men were rated as being stronger and more active  Japan and South African rated male characteristics as more favorable; Italy and Peru rated female characteristics more favorable

Culture and Gender Stereotypes  Follow up studies by Williams and colleagues  These studies show gender stereotypes around the world are stable  Men viewed as active, strong, critical, conscientious, extraverted, and open  Women viewed passive, weak, nurturing, adaptive, agreeable, and neurotic

Culture and Gender Stereotypes  Other studies  support William and Best studies  examination of how gender stereotypes develop  Many unanswered questions remain  How congruent are behaviors with stereotypes and does this congruence differ across cultures?  Are stereotypes related to important psychological constructs or behaviors?

Culture, Gender-Role Ideology, and Self-Concept  Gender-role ideology: judgments about what males and females ought to be like or ought to do  Williams and Best (1990) study on 14 countries  Highly egalitarian: Netherlands, Germany and Finland  Highly traditional: Nigeria, Pakistan and India

Culture, Gender-Role Ideology, and Self-Concept  Gibbons and colleagues (1990) study on adolescents  Adolescents from wealthier and more individualistic countries were less traditional  Gender ideologies may be changing as societies change  Religion may play a role in keeping with traditional gender roles

GENDER DIFFERENCES ACROSS CULTURES

Cross-Cultural Research on Gender  Culture and Gender Stereotypes  Williams and Best (1982)-used the Adjective Check List where subjects characterized adjectives as male or female characteristics  Men are generally viewed as active, strong, critical, and adult like with needs such as dominance, autonomy, aggression, exhibition, achievement and endurance.

Cross-Cultural Research (cont.) Women are viewed as passive, weak, nurturing, and adaptive with needs such as abasement, deference, nurturance, affiliation, and heterosexuality. These researchers are suggesting that their findings support a “psychological universal” when it comes to gender stereotypes.

Cross-Cultural Research (cont.)  Later studies, however, found considerable gender-related cultural differences.  These findings suggest that gender stereotype differentiation tended to be higher in countries that were conservative and hierarchical with low levels of socioeconomic development, Christian affiliation, and proportion of women attending a university.

Hofstede’s Study  Masculinity versus Femininity: degree to which culture will foster, encourage, or maintain differences between males and females  Highly masculine: Japan, Austria, Venezuela, Italy  Low masculine: Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden  Masculine and feminine cultures differ in sexuality and attitudes toward religion

Perceptual/Spatial/Cognitive Differences  Common American folklore is that males better at mathematical and spatial reasoning tasks and females better at verbal comprehension tasks  This is not necessarily true for other cultures  No gender difference in spatial abilities in Inuit culture in Canada and Ecuador (women engage in tasks that require spatial abilities)  Males did better in tight, sedentary, and agriculturally based cultures  Females did better in loose, nomadic, and hunting and gathering based cultures

Conformity and Obedience  Common gender-role stereotypes is that females more conforming and obedient than males  This is not necessarily true for other cultures  In tighter cultures, females more conformists than males  In looser cultures, less gender difference in conformity or males more conformists