Is there an impact of maternal employment on mother-infant relationships and child development? Lindsay McNeil October 25, 2005

How many of you grew up in a family where your mother worked? How many of you grew up in a family where your mother worked? How young were you when your mother started back to work? How young were you when your mother started back to work? Do you feel this affected you in any way? Do you feel this affected you in any way? If so, how? (negatively or positively) If so, how? (negatively or positively) Do you believe this is a representative sample? Do you believe this is a representative sample?

Over the past 3 decades the number of women in the workforce has increased significantly Over the past 3 decades the number of women in the workforce has increased significantly With this comes an increase in the number of mothers in the workplace With this comes an increase in the number of mothers in the workplace But does this have an impact on the social and cognitive development of their children? But does this have an impact on the social and cognitive development of their children?

2001 statistics in Canada 60% of women with children under 3 years of age were employed 60% of women with children under 3 years of age were employed 85% of Canadian mothers and nearly as many fathers felt there were not enough hours in the day 85% of Canadian mothers and nearly as many fathers felt there were not enough hours in the day This brings up the issue of maternity and parental leaves This brings up the issue of maternity and parental leaves

In Canada (2004), 65.9% of mothers received maternity or parental benefits In Canada (2004), 65.9% of mothers received maternity or parental benefits The number of individuals receiving parental benefits increased from 31,837 in 2000 to 126,587 in 2004 (Stats Can) The number of individuals receiving parental benefits increased from 31,837 in 2000 to 126,587 in 2004 (Stats Can) The average duration of leave was 11 months, with nearly 63% of Canadian mothers returning to work while their child was between the ages of 9 and 12 months. The average duration of leave was 11 months, with nearly 63% of Canadian mothers returning to work while their child was between the ages of 9 and 12 months.

In 2000 the Canadian government was offering 12 months of partially paid maternity and parental leaves In 2000 the Canadian government was offering 12 months of partially paid maternity and parental leaves In the U.S. only 12 weeks of unpaid leave were offered to those who were eligible In the U.S. only 12 weeks of unpaid leave were offered to those who were eligible Is it possible that these two countries place a different level of importance on early maternal care? Is it possible that these two countries place a different level of importance on early maternal care?

Negative beliefs Attachment theory indicates that children whose mothers are absent during critical periods of early development are less likely to develop secure attachment with their mothers Attachment theory indicates that children whose mothers are absent during critical periods of early development are less likely to develop secure attachment with their mothers Initial beliefs were that early maternal employment would hinder the development of stable relationships between mother and child Initial beliefs were that early maternal employment would hinder the development of stable relationships between mother and child

Positive beliefs Regular predictable separations beginning early in the first year of a child’s life will be less disruptive to attachment security than separations beginning later Regular predictable separations beginning early in the first year of a child’s life will be less disruptive to attachment security than separations beginning later Separation is bound to happen, maybe children will be better adapted if they know how to deal with this separation Separation is bound to happen, maybe children will be better adapted if they know how to deal with this separation

Research has been found to support both the negative and positive views on this topic Research has been found to support both the negative and positive views on this topic It has also indicated that maternal employment alone may not have a significant impact on the child (in either direction) It has also indicated that maternal employment alone may not have a significant impact on the child (in either direction)

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care (NICHD-SECC) Used 900 European American children from a dataset of 1,364 children assessed since their birth in 1991 Used 900 European American children from a dataset of 1,364 children assessed since their birth in 1991 Children were assessed at home and in a laboratory setting at 15, 24 and 36 months Children were assessed at home and in a laboratory setting at 15, 24 and 36 months

Bayley MDI was measured when the children were at both 15 and 24 months of age Bayley MDI was measured when the children were at both 15 and 24 months of age Bracken School Readiness Scale was measured at 36 months Bracken School Readiness Scale was measured at 36 months –Reliability and validity were found between the 2 measures Questioned mothers to assess employment status Questioned mothers to assess employment status Maternal sensitivity was also assessed Maternal sensitivity was also assessed

Results No significant correlation between employment and Bayley MDI was found No significant correlation between employment and Bayley MDI was found At 36 months: At 36 months: –Statistically significant negative effect of mother’s being employed by the 9 th month –Marginally significant negative effect of mother’s employment by 6 th month –Mothers who worked 30+hrs/week by the 9 th month had significantly lower sensitivity scores

Han, Waldfogel & Brooks-Gunn Looked at children born in , with mothers of age Looked at children born in , with mothers of age –Sample: Whites = 244, Blacks = 218 Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised used at 3-4 years of age Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised used at 3-4 years of age Peabody Individual Attachment Test used at ages 5-6 and 7-8 Peabody Individual Attachment Test used at ages 5-6 and 7-8 Behavioral Problems Index used for ages 4+ Behavioral Problems Index used for ages 4+ Also looked at impact of maternal employment considering the timing and extent of employment Also looked at impact of maternal employment considering the timing and extent of employment

Results Maternal employment had a significant negative effect on PPVT-R score which persisted to PIAT Maternal employment had a significant negative effect on PPVT-R score which persisted to PIAT Starting employment before 9 months could lower child’s PPVT-R score Starting employment before 9 months could lower child’s PPVT-R score –Also found to have sig. effect at ages 7-8 on externalizing behavioural problems Employment starting between 9 and 12 months showed no significant effect Employment starting between 9 and 12 months showed no significant effect Only long-term negative effects were consistent if mother worked first year then stopped Only long-term negative effects were consistent if mother worked first year then stopped No sig. effects found on any measure for Blacks No sig. effects found on any measure for Blacks

Douglas K. Symons Used sample from rural Atlantic Canada Used sample from rural Atlantic Canada –Almost exclusively family-based non-parental care Attrition due to geographical distance, work and other measures Attrition due to geographical distance, work and other measures –Found to have no effect Final sample consisted of 57 mothers and their children Final sample consisted of 57 mothers and their children

Feelings about separation were measured on the Maternal Separation Anxiety Scale Feelings about separation were measured on the Maternal Separation Anxiety Scale –Assessed maternal separation anxiety, perception of separation effects on the child, and employment-related separation concerns Mothers provided reports of infants temperament at 3 and 6 months of age using the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire Mothers provided reports of infants temperament at 3 and 6 months of age using the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire –Fussy/difficult, inadaptable, dull, and unpredictable

2 year assessments Employment: Employment: –Unemployed (<5hrs/week) –Part-time (5-20hrs/week) –Full-time (>20hrs/week) Attachment Behavior Q-set – naturalistic attachment technique Attachment Behavior Q-set – naturalistic attachment technique Maternal Behavior Q-sort – determine sensitivity of mother toward child Maternal Behavior Q-sort – determine sensitivity of mother toward child Q-SORT – performed by outside observers Q-SORT – performed by outside observers

Results Post-six month returnees: Post-six month returnees: –score very high on attachment security –Lower avoidance-oriented coping and parental stress –Children with fewer total behavioural problems Pre-six month returnees and homemakers’ children scored closer to norms Pre-six month returnees and homemakers’ children scored closer to norms Sensitivity: Sensitivity: –Post-six-month > pre-six month > homemaker

The results indicate that mothers returning to the workforce later may have been coping with parental stress and child difficulty better, which in turn extended to their relationship measures The results indicate that mothers returning to the workforce later may have been coping with parental stress and child difficulty better, which in turn extended to their relationship measures Suited more toward the positive beliefs Suited more toward the positive beliefs

Harrison & Ungerer Recruited mothers during their 3 rd trimester of pregnancy – sample included 145 mothers and their first born child Recruited mothers during their 3 rd trimester of pregnancy – sample included 145 mothers and their first born child 93% were of Caucasian European origin, mother ages ranging from years 93% were of Caucasian European origin, mother ages ranging from years Follow-up questionnaires, structured interviews and lab assessments of interaction were performed at 4 and 12 months Follow-up questionnaires, structured interviews and lab assessments of interaction were performed at 4 and 12 months Depression was assessed pre- and post-natal using the Beck Depression Inventory Depression was assessed pre- and post-natal using the Beck Depression Inventory

30 item Short Temperament Scale for Infants/Toddlers was used at 4 and 12 months 30 item Short Temperament Scale for Infants/Toddlers was used at 4 and 12 months Maternal sensitivity and interaction ratings were assessed through videotape analysis Maternal sensitivity and interaction ratings were assessed through videotape analysis At 12 months children underwent the Strange Situation procedure to assess attachment At 12 months children underwent the Strange Situation procedure to assess attachment

Results Gender difference Gender difference Longer hours were not found to affect the mother’s rating of the child’s temperament Longer hours were not found to affect the mother’s rating of the child’s temperament Mothers who worked at 5 months received the highest sensitivity ratings Mothers who worked at 5 months received the highest sensitivity ratings Secure attachment was more likely when mothers were rated as more sensitive, older and having a higher level of support Secure attachment was more likely when mothers were rated as more sensitive, older and having a higher level of support Insecure-ambivalent attachments were a common feature of the non-employed group Insecure-ambivalent attachments were a common feature of the non-employed group

Overall Discussion The sample used and the measures being assessed across the different experiments lead to different results. The sample used and the measures being assessed across the different experiments lead to different results. Often researchers looked at subjects at different time intervals Often researchers looked at subjects at different time intervals Some research was based more on short-term effects whereas others were more focused on the possible long-term effects Some research was based more on short-term effects whereas others were more focused on the possible long-term effects

Sensitivity seemed to play a large role in many of the research findings. Sensitivity seemed to play a large role in many of the research findings. Some research showed completely opposite results, most likely based on the methodology – should find some way to make it more standardized Some research showed completely opposite results, most likely based on the methodology – should find some way to make it more standardized

Graduate Studies Dr. Doug Symons, Acadia University Dr. Doug Symons, Acadia University –Social & Cognitive Development; Child- Clinical Psychology Dr. Cindy Hardy, University of Northern British Columbia Dr. Cindy Hardy, University of Northern British Columbia –Child and adolescent psychology –Interests in child clinical psychology, human development, and parenting

Dr. Anna-Beth Doyle, Concordia University Dr. Anna-Beth Doyle, Concordia University –Interests in family influences on social and emotional developments and adjustment in childhood Dr. Kristine Hansen, University of Winnipeg Dr. Kristine Hansen, University of Winnipeg –Interests in children’s social development and the effects of day care Dr. Kaye Kerr, University of Winnipeg Dr. Kaye Kerr, University of Winnipeg –Interested in impact of child daycare on young children Included because maternal employment tends to have a large effect on the use of non-parental care, such as daycare

References Symons, Douglas K. (1998). Post-Partum Employment Patterns, Family-Based Care Arrangements, and Mother-Infant Relationship at Age Two [Electronic version]. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 30(2), Symons, Douglas K. (1998). Post-Partum Employment Patterns, Family-Based Care Arrangements, and Mother-Infant Relationship at Age Two [Electronic version]. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 30(2), Harrison, Linda J., Ungerer, Judy A. (2002). Maternal Employment and Infant-Mother Attachment Security at 12 Months Postpartum [Electronic version]. Developmental Psychology, 38(5), Harrison, Linda J., Ungerer, Judy A. (2002). Maternal Employment and Infant-Mother Attachment Security at 12 Months Postpartum [Electronic version]. Developmental Psychology, 38(5), Han, Wen-Jui, Waldfogel, Jane, Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne (2001). The Effects of Early Maternal Employment on Later Cognitive and Behavioural Outcome [Electronic version]. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(2), Han, Wen-Jui, Waldfogel, Jane, Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne (2001). The Effects of Early Maternal Employment on Later Cognitive and Behavioural Outcome [Electronic version]. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(2),

References Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne, Han, Wen-Jui, Waldfogel, Jane (2002). Maternal Employment and Child Cognitive Outcomes in the First Three Years of Life: The NICHD Study of Early Child Care [Electronic version]. Child Development, 73(4), Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne, Han, Wen-Jui, Waldfogel, Jane (2002). Maternal Employment and Child Cognitive Outcomes in the First Three Years of Life: The NICHD Study of Early Child Care [Electronic version]. Child Development, 73(4),