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Memory Studying Memory Building Memories: Encoding Memory Storage Retrieval: Getting Information Out Forgetting Memory Construction Errors Improving Memory

Studying Memory An information-processing model

Studying Memory Memory Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information Information-processing models Used to help us think about how the brain forms and retrieves memories

Encoding Process of getting information into the memory system Storage Process of retaining encoded information over time Retrieval Process of getting information out of memory storage

An Information-Processing Model Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968): Three stages 1.We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory. 2.From there, we process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal. 3.Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval.

A MODIFIED THREE-STAGE INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORY Atkinson and Shiffrin’s classic three-step model helps us to think about how memories are processed, but today’s researchers recognize other ways long- term memories form. For example, some information slips into long-term memory via a “back door,” without our consciously attending to it (automatic processing). And so much active processing occurs in the short- term memory stage that many now prefer to call that stage working memory.

Information-Processing Working memory Processes important, focused information Makes sense of new input Links with long-term memory Uses a central executive (Baddeley)

WORKING MEMORY Alan Baddeley’s (2002) model of working memory, simplified here, includes visual and auditory rehearsal of new information. Part of the brain functions like a manager, a central executive focusing attention and pulling information from long-term memory to help make sense of new information.

What two new concepts update the classic Atkinson-Shiffrin three-stage information processing model? What are two basic functions of working memory?

Building Memories: Encoding Our two-track memory system Automatic processing and implicit memories Effortful processing and explicit memories

Building Memories: Encoding Our two-track memory system Explicit memories (declarative memories) of conscious facts and experiences encoded through conscious, effortful processing Implicit memories (nondeclarative memories)that form through automatic processes and bypass the conscious encoding track

Building Memories: Encoding Automatic processing and implicit memories Implicit memories include automatic skills and classically conditioned associations Information is automatically processed about Space Time Frequency Effortful processing and explicit memories With experience and practice, explicit memories become automatic

Sensory memory TOTAL RECALL—BRIEFLY When George Sperling (1960) flashed a group of letters similar to this for one- twentieth of a second, people could recall only about half the letters. But when signaled to recall any one row immediately after the letters had disappeared, they could do so with near-perfect accuracy. What is sensory memory? First stage in forming explicit memories Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system Iconic memory: Picture- image memory Echoic memory: Sound memory

Capacity of Short-Term and Working Memory Short-term memory Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten Working memory Newer understanding of short-term memory that stresses conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Capacity of Short-Term and Working Memory Short-term memory George Miller (1956) Magical Number Seven: People can store about seven bits of information (give or take two) Baddeley and colleagues ( 1975) Without distraction, about seven digits or about six letters or five words Working memory Capacity varies by age and distractions at the time of memory tasks

SHORT-TERM MEMORY DECAY Unless rehearsed, verbal information may be quickly forgotten (From Peterson & Peterson, 1959; see also Brown, 1958.)

Building Memories: Encoding Effortful processing strategies Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically Mnemonics: Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices Peg-word system (From Hintzman, 1978.)

Building Memories: Encoding Spaced study and self-assessment Spacing effect: Encoding is more effective when it is spread over time Distributed practice: Produces better long-term recall Massive practice: Produces speedy short term learning and feelings of confidence Repeated self-testing (testing effect) effect: Encoding is very effective

Building Memories: Encoding Making new information meaningful Spaced practice is most effective when new information is meaningful Ebbinghaus Estimated that, compared with learning nonsense material, learning meaningful material required one- tenth the effort

Which strategies are better for long term retention: cramming and rereading material, or spreading out learning over time and repeatedly testing yourself?

Memory Storage Retaining information in the brain Synaptic changes

Memory Storage: Retaining Information in the Brain Past research Whole past is contained in memory—waiting to be relived Newer findings Flashbacks during surgery are new creations of a stressed brain Information is not stored in a single, specific spot Perception, language, emotions and more require brain networks

Explicit- Memory System: Hippocampus and Frontal Lobes The brain registers and temporarily stores event aspects in the hippocampus Memories then migrate for storage in memory consolidation process Right and left frontal lobes store different information The hippocampus and the brain cortex display rhythmic patterns of activity during sleep THE HIPPOCAMPUS Explicit memories for facts and episodes are processed in the hippocampus and fed to other brain regions for storage. Roger Harris / Science Source

Retaining Information in the Brain Implicit memory system: Cerebellum and basal ganglia The cerebellum plays an important role in forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning Memories of physical skills are also implicit memories Basal ganglia help form memories for these skills Infantile amnesia Conscious memory of the first three years is blank Command of language and a well-developed hippocampus are needed

Review Key Memory Structures in the Brain Frontal lobes and hippocampus: explicit memory formation Cerebellum and basal ganglia: implicit memory formation Amygdala: emotion-related memory formation

Which parts of the brain are important for implicit memory processing, and which parts play a key role in explicit memory processing? Your friend has experienced brain damage in an accident. He can’t remember anything told to him during a conversation. What’s going on here?

Retaining Information in the Brain Excitement or stress trigger hormone production and provoke the amygdala to engage memory Emotions often persist with or without conscious awareness Flashback memories occur via emotion- triggered hormonal changes and rehearsal

Synaptic Changes Long-term potentiation (LTP) Increase in a synapse’s firing potential After LTP, the brain will not erase memories Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory Kandel and Schwartz (1982) Pinpointed changes in sea slugs’ neural connections With learning more serotonin is released and cell efficiency increased—number of synapses increase

Our Two Memory Systems

Which brain area responds to stress hormones by helping to create stronger memories? The neural basis for learning and memory, found at the synapses in the brain’s memory connections, results from brief, rapid stimulation. It is called ________.

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Measuring retention Retrieval cues

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Three types of evidence indicate memory retention Recall Recognition Relearning

EBBINGHAUS’ RETENTION CURVE The more times Ebbinghaus practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the less practice he needed to relearn it on day 2 Speed of relearning is one way to measure whether something was learned and retained (From Baddeley, 1982.)

Multiple-choice questions test our a. recall.c. relearning. b. recognition.d. sensory memory. Fill-in-the blank questions test our ________. If you want to be sure to remember what you’re learning for an upcoming test, would it be better to use recall or recognition to check your memory? Why?

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Memory retrieval Memories are held in storage by a web of associations Retrieval cues serve as anchor points for pathways to memories suspended in this web Priming Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Retrieval Cues PRIMING—AWAKENING ASSOCIATIONS After seeing or hearing rabbit, we are later more likely to spell the spoken word as h-a-r-e Associations unconsciously activate related associations This process is called priming (Adapted from Bower, 1986.)

Retrieval Cues Context effects Priming memory is often helped by returning to the context of the experience State-dependent memory There is a tendency to recall events consistent with current good or bad mood (mood-congruent memory) Serial position effect There is a tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

The Effects of Context on Memory Words heard underwater were best recalled underwater; words heard on land were best recalled on land. (Adapted from Godden & Baddeley, 1975.) Alexis Rosenfeld / Science Source

What is priming? When we are tested immediately after viewing a list of words, we tend to recall the first and last items best, which is known as the ________ effect.

Forgetting Forgetting and the two-track mind Encoding failure Storage decay Retrieval failure

Forgetting and the Two-track Mind Humans have two distinct memory systems, controlled by different parts of the brain Forgetting has several causes Encoding failure Storage decay Retrieval failure Interference Motivated forgetting Let’s look more closely at these causes. STUDYING A FAMOUS BRAIN Jacopo Annese and of California are preserving Henry Molaison’s brain for the benefit of future generations. Their careful work will result in a freely available online brain atlas. John Gibbins/ZUMApress/Newscom

Forgetting: Encoding and Storage Decay Encoding failure Age: Encoding lag is linked to age-related memory decline Attention: Failure to notice or encode contributes to memory failure Storage decay Course of forgetting is initially rapid, and then levels off with time Physical change in the brain occur as memory forms (memory trace)

FORGETTING AS ENCODING FAILURE We cannot remember what we have not encoded.

The Forgetting Curve For Spanish Learned In School Compared with others just completing a Spanish language-learning course, people 3 years out of the course remember much less. Compared with the 3- year group, however, those who studied Spanish even longer ago did not forget much more. (Adapted from Bahrick, 1984.) Bill Aron / Photo Edit

Forgetting: Retrieval Failure Reason for failure Events and memories are not available because they were never acquired Memories have been discarded due to stored memory decay Insufficient information to access memories make these out of reach

RETRIEVAL FAILURE Reason for failure Events and memories are not available because they were never acquired Memories have been discarded due to stored memory decay Insufficient information to access memories make these out of reach

Forgetting Interference Proactive: Occurs when older memory makes it more difficult to remember new information Retroactive: Occurs when new learning disrupts memory for older information Motivated forgetting Freud: Repressed memories protect self-concept and minimize anxiety Today: Attempts to forget are more likely when information is neutral, not emotional

RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE People forgot more when they stayed awake and experienced other new material. (From Jenkins & Dallenbach, 1924.)

WHEN DO WE FORGET? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

What are three ways we forget, and how does each of these happen?

Memory Construction Errors Misinformation and imagination effects Source amnesia Recognizing false memories Children’s eyewitness recall Repressed or constructed memories of abuse?

Memory Construction Errors Memory is not exact Proactive interference: Disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information Retroactive interference: Disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information 7-17 How do misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence our memory construction? How do we decide whether a memory is real or false?

Memory Construction Errors Misinformation and imagination effects Misinformation effect occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information Imagination effect occurs when repeatedly imaging fake actions and events can create false memories

MEMORY CONSTRUCTION In this experiment, people viewed a film of a car accident (left). Those who later were asked a leading question recalled a more serious accident than they had witnessed. (From Loftus, 1979.)

Memory Construction Errors Source amnesia Involves faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined Déjà vu Sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Suggests cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

Recognizing False Memories Children’s eyewitness recall Ceci and Bruck Researchers studied the effect of suggestive interviewing techniques 58 percent of preschoolers produced false stories about one or more unexperienced events Children often accurately recall events and actors Neutral person Nonleading questions soon after event containing words children can understand

Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse? Challenges related to adult recognition of childhood abuse: People do not believe abuse survivors Innocent people are falsely accused

Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse? Those committed to protecting abused children and those committed to protecting wrongly accused adults have agreed on the following: Sexual abuse happens Injustice happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable Memories “recovered” under hypnosis are especially unreliable Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting

Improving Memory What do you do to improve your memory and increase your success in this course?