Star formation (and associated planets) from a nebula

The Earth’s Layers

(some editions: TEXT p. 209) “Above the core is the mantle, containing molten rock, or magma, that slowly circulates in convection cells, much as the atmosphere does”. NOTE to clarify the description of mantle: The mantle contains magma in it’s upper region that seeps into the crust and erupts as lava. The mantle itself is a SOLID that behaves as a viscous liquid over geologic time. Therefore, it is the solid mantle that circulates in convection cells, not the magma. Earth Interior

(not to scale)

Seismic Evidence of Earth’s Layers Earthquake- energy released by brittle substance (lithosphere);Energy is in the form of waves that radiate Seismographs & Seismograms – Surface- cause damage at the surface – Body- travel through the Earth P- Primary; Arrive 1 st ; Compressional (Longitudinal in physics) S- Secondary; Arrive 2 nd ; Shearing (Transverse in physics) All waves increase in velocity with increasing density; but s waves can’t penetrate liquids or gasses Gap between p & s waves tell you how far away the EQ is 5

6 Seismograms generated by seismographs

Seismic Body Waves (blue dot represents a solid particle in the path of the seismic wave)

Evidence for Earth’s internal structure is from seismic wave refraction (change in velocity) when traveling from one density layer into a different density layer Seismic waves through undifferentiated planet. Seismic waves through differentiated Earth.

Earthquakes and Plate Boundaries

Earth’s Lithospheric Plates

Heat Transfer & Melting the Mantle Convection  Plate Movement Intraplate  Hot Spots

Continental + Continental Convergence (Collision) Himalayan Mts

Continental + Oceanic Crust (Subduction) Andes Mts Cascade Mts

Oceanic + Oceanic Crust (Subduction) Indonesian Islands Japanese Islands

Subduction leading to collision (convergence) and formation of Himalayas Subduction (convergence) Divergence Dynamic Activity at Plate Boundaries Divergence: Subduction: Collision:

(some editions: TEXT p. 213) “Because the subducted plate will melt, rising magma may be the source of new volcano formation”. NOTE to clarify formation of subduction zone magma: The subducted slab dehydrates and releases water to the mantle, lowering the mantle melting temperature.

Divergence (Decompression) Separation of 2 plates “Seafloor spreading” Mid-Ocean Ridges (MOR) Forms new ocean crust Mid-Atlantic Ridge which is visible on land in Iceland Continental rifts (East Africa)

Transform Boundaries Occurs at divergent boundaries 2 plates slide past each other This sliding is not smooth. Plates lock and build up tension. Then the plates “snap” and release that energy  earthquake!

Individual column of magma that rises up and punches through the lithosphere Forms chains of volcanoes as a plate moves over the hot spot ~100 Hot Spots 10% of heat transfer Decompression melting (like divergence) Intraplate Dynamic Activity

Chains of volcanoes formed as a plate moves over a hot spot with rising magma. Mantle plume Volcanism

Diagram plate movement and hot spot activity on the “Earths Interior” worksheet

Practice Worksheet

Soil Properties

(Some editions: textbook errors): Figure 8.23 caption “Soil porosity” should be “Soil permeability”. p.224: 2 nd column, 1st full paragraph “The porosity of soil..” should be “permeability”. p.224: 2 nd column, last line “..porous..” should be “permeable”. Sediments that make up Soil strongly affect soil permeability

Sediments can be Sorted by Size When transported by water or wind

Sediments that form Rocks must be cemented together

Mining Methods are determine by the resource location and formation