Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited Chapter 9 Part 2 Designing Research Studies OBSERVATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1.To distinguish between scientific observation and casual observation 2.To discuss the characteristics of observation research 3.To give examples of nonverbal behaviour that can be observed 4.To discuss the various situations in which direct observation studies may take place 5.To discuss scientifically contrived observation 6.To discuss some ethical issues in observation studies 7.To define physical-trace evidence What you will learn in this chapter Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–1

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (cont’d) 8.To define content analysis and explain the purposes of content analysis 9.To describe the various types of mechanical observation 10.To discuss the techniques for measuring physiological reactions What you will learn in this chapter Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–2

ObservationObservation  The systematic process of recording the behavioural patterns of people, objects, and occurrences as they are witnessed Observation is a tool for scientific inquiry when:Observation is a tool for scientific inquiry when:  It serves a formulated research purpose  It is planned systematically  It is recorded systematically and related to general propositions rather than simply reflecting a set of interesting curiosities  It is subjected to checks or controls on validity and reliability When Is Observation Scientific? Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–3

 Physical action  Example: A shopper’s movement pattern in a store  Verbal behaviour  Example: Statements made by airline travellers while waiting in line  Expressive behaviour  Example: Facial expressions, tones of voices, and other forms of body language  Spatial relations and locations  Example: How close visitors at an art museum stand to paintings What Can Be Observed? Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–4

 Temporal patterns  Example: How long fast-food customers wait for their orders to be served  Physical Objects  Example: What brand-name items are stored in consumers’ pantries  Verbal and Pictorial Records  Example: Bar codes on product packages  Observation research cannot provide an explanation of why a behaviour occurred or what actions were intended What Can Be Observed? (cont’d) Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–5

Visible ObservationVisible Observation  Observation in which the observer’s presence is known to the subject Hidden ObservationHidden Observation  Observation in which the subject is unaware that observation is taking place  Advantage of observation studies over surveys:  The data do not have distortions, inaccuracies or other response biases due to memory error, social desirability bias, etc. The Nature of Observation Studies Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–6

Nonverbal behaviour can be a communication process by which meanings are exchanged among individualsNonverbal behaviour can be a communication process by which meanings are exchanged among individuals Head nods, smiles, raised eyebrows, and other facial expressions or body movements have been recognized as communication symbolsHead nods, smiles, raised eyebrows, and other facial expressions or body movements have been recognized as communication symbols Observation of Human Behaviour Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–7

The results of observation studies may amplify the results of other forms of research by providing complementary evidence concerning individuals’ “true” feelingsThe results of observation studies may amplify the results of other forms of research by providing complementary evidence concerning individuals’ “true” feelings  Focus group interviews conducted behind one-way mirrors from which marketing executives observe what is occurring—allows for interpretation of nonverbal behaviour to supplement information from interviews Observation of Human Behaviour (cont’d) Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–9

Direct ObservationDirect Observation  A straightforward attempt to observe and record what naturally occurs; the investigator does not create an artificial situation Response LatencyResponse Latency  The amount of time it takes to make a choice between two alternatives; used as a measure of the strength of preference Direct Observation Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–10

Errors Associated with Direct ObservationErrors Associated with Direct Observation  Observer bias  A distortion of measurement resulting from the cognitive behaviour or actions of a witnessing observer Scientifically Contrived ObservationScientifically Contrived Observation  Contrived observation  Observation in which the investigator creates an artificial environment in order to test a hypothesis Direct Observation (cont’d) Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–11

Researchers observe individual consumers’ behaviour in everyday situations; during or after the in-depth observations, individuals are asked to explain the meaning of their actionsResearchers observe individual consumers’ behaviour in everyday situations; during or after the in-depth observations, individuals are asked to explain the meaning of their actions Combining Direct Observation and Interviewing Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–12

Respondent’s right to privacyRespondent’s right to privacy Deception and entrapmentDeception and entrapment Ethical Issues in the Observation of Humans Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–13

Physical-trace evidencePhysical-trace evidence  A visible mark of some past event or occurrence Observation of Physical Objects Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–14

Content AnalysisContent Analysis  The systematic observation and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication Content Analysis Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–15

Television MonitoringTelevision Monitoring  Computerized mechanical observation used to obtain television ratings Monitoring Web Site TrafficMonitoring Web Site Traffic  Hit and page views  Example: Nielsen//NetRatings and comScore Networks Mechanical Observation Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–16

Scanner-Based ResearchScanner-Based Research  Scanner-based consumer panel  A type of consumer panel in which participants’ purchasing habits are recorded with a laser scanner rather than a purchase diary  At-home scanning system  A system that allows consumer panellists to perform their own scanning after taking home products, using hand-held wands that read UPC symbols Mechanical Observation (cont’d) Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–17

Measuring Physiological ReactionsMeasuring Physiological Reactions  Eye-tracking monitor  A mechanical device used to observe eye movements. Some eye monitors use infrared light beams to measure unconscious eye movements  Pupilometer  A mechanical device used to observe and record changes in the diameter of a subject’s pupils  Psychogalvanometer  A device that measures galvanic skin response, a measure of involuntary changes in the electrical resistance of the skin Mechanical Observation (cont’d) Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–18

Measuring Physiological Reactions (cont’d)Measuring Physiological Reactions (cont’d)  Voice pitch analysis  A physiological measurement technique that records abnormal frequencies in the voice that are supposed to reflect emotional reactions to various stimuli Mechanical Observation (cont’d) Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–19