Two types of molecules make a fat

R groups determine the type of amino acid Amino group Acid group

Animation 5.9.3

Reactant Product Negative change in free energy Reactant Product

Animation 6.16

ATP helps to couple reactions

The surface area to volume ratio increases with smaller size By subdividing a large volume into smaller volume increase the SA/Vol ratio

The endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes and various kinds of vacuoles. It can be used to add to the membrane system and also to modify it.

Chloroplasts convert radiant energy from the sun into chemical energy the plant can use. Its inner membrane is composed of flattened sacs called thylakoids. A stack of these is called a granum. The thylakoid membrane have a green pigment called chlorophyll in them. Chloroplasts are part of a larger group of organelles called plastids. Leukoplasts are colorless and are used for storage (e.g. amyloplasts store starch). Chromoplasts have colored pigments.

9 + 2 structure found in eukaryotes Basal body has 9 triplets identical to the centriole

NAD + recycled

NADox is recycled back to glycolysis

Regulation such as feedback inhibition controls how much ATP is produced

Types of cell communication

3 Stages of Cell Signaling

4 Types of Signal Reception G-Protein- Linked Tyrosine - Kinase Ligand-gated ion channels Intracellular Receptors

Signal Transduction Pathways or Relay Molecules pass information INTO the cell Transfers a phosphate group from ATP to a protein Usually serine or threonine is phosphorylated To REVERSE the process, protein phosphatases remove the phosphate groups

Some relay molecules are NOT proteins - Second Messengers Two kinds of second messengers are cAMP and Calcium ions

Page 199 Calcium can bind to Calmodulin

Enzyme Cascade Effect amplifies the response

Binary Fission

Cdk and Cyclin combine to form MPF - which is an active from of Cdk MPF will phosphorylate many enzymes - which will move the cell past the G 2 checkpoint into M phase - it will also make a proteolytic enzyme that destroys cyclin and thus turn off MPF MPF is only active when there is a high cyclin concentration

Law of Independent Assortment

Crossing Over p236