Chapter 1 In Search of a Vision

In Search of a Vision Organizational Behavior is the interplay between individuals and the social environment in which they work. You must play an active role in reading and understanding this book. Internalize meanings by reading, questioning, and discussing with others how concepts fit into the practical world of your work.

Assumptions, Beliefs, and Behaviors Every culture has basic assumptions about people. From these assumptions flow values and beliefs. From values and beliefs flow action. Yet in society and organizations, our expressed assumptions do not always lead to appropriate action. Hypocrisy abounds in education and other organizations. Examples?

Paradigms in Education Education has no overarching paradigm. The last paradigm in education was progressive education. The conservative social and political landscape is currently attempting to force a scientific revolution as embodied in NCLB, which does not have full support of the education community.

Impact of Behavioral Science-- Psychology Behaviorism—focus on extrinsic rewards and punishments to explain and control behavior. B.F. Skinner Remains Influential in Curriculum and instruction Classroom management

Psychology Paradigms (continued) Psychoanalytic Psychology—unconscious drives and internal instincts motivate people and cause their behavior. Sigmund Freud and Bruno Bettelheim Cognitive Psychology—mental processes including thinking, reasoning, decision making underlie behavior (critical and creative thinking). Jean Piaget most influential in affecting education.

Psychology Paradigms (continued) Social Psychology—the study of how individuals perceive, influence and relate to others in the context of environment. Kurt Lewin B = f(p · environment), that is behavior is a function of the interaction between the person and the environment. Organizations exist only as socially constructed reality. This has implications for leadership. B = f(p · environment) is the subject of this book.

Sociological and Psychological Points of View Sociologists and Psychologists generally agree on goals of schooling. However, they differ on how to achieve those goals. Psychologists tend to focus on the individual interactions and relationships. Sociologists tend to focus on group interactions and organizational characteristics. Taken together, these points of view help us understand organizational behavior.

Schools as Educative Organizations School are unique and should not mindlessly follow business approaches to management. Schools foster learning and personal growth of all participants, including the adults as well as the children. School should uniquely strive for Kaizen—the Japanese principle that “small incremental steps” lead to continuous improvement.

Schools as Educative Organizations (continued) Organizational Theory helps us make more informed choices to attain our goals. Theory enables us to describe what is going on, explain it, predict future events under given circumstances. This is essential to the professional practitioner so they may think about ways to exercise control over events.

Two Major Perspectives on Educational Organizations Bureaucratic Theory—traditional and most common organizational theory worldwide—the “factory model”. Nonbureaucratic Theory– we call this the Human Resources Development view. What follows are two examples of different approaches to controlling and coordinating the behavior of people in an organization.

Bureaucratic Views Five mechanisms for dealing with controlling and coordinating the behavior of people in an organization. Maintain firm hierarchical control of authority and close supervision of those in the lower ranks. Establish and maintain adequate vertical communication. Develop clear written rules and procedures to set standards and guide actions. Promulgate clear plans and schedules for participants to follow. Add supervisory and administrative positions to the hierarchy of the organization as necessary to meet problems that arise from changing conditions confronted by the organization.

Bureaucratic Views (continued) In 1983, A Nation At Risk, and other reports brought recommendations that resulted in: Longer school days, focus on time on task, more homework, career ladders, calls for stronger school leadership of the principal, “tougher” curriculum, longer school calendar and others. In essence, the bureaucratic model was at work: management decided what was to be done, they directed the workers to do it, and supervised them closely. Although this model was not effective, it still persists today.

Human Resources Development Views Human Resources Development (HRD) views the teacher as foremost in creating instructional change. HRD uses newer concepts such as loose coupling (allowing subunits autonomy) and the power of organization culture to influence behavior. HRD exercises coordination and control through socialization of participants to the values and goals of the organization, rather then through written rules and close supervision.

Theory X and Theory Y Theory X rests on four assumptions that an administrator holds about people in the organization. They dislike work, must be supervised closely, will shirk responsibility and seek formal direction, and have little ambition. Theory Y embraces four very different assumptions administrators hold about the nature of people at work. They view work as satisfying, exercise initiative and self direction if committed to the organization, learn to accept responsibility and seek it, and have the ability to make good decisions.

Pattern A & Pattern B Behavior Chris Argyris explains how Theory X views give rise to Behavior Pattern A in leaders: Pattern A, Hard: characterized by no-nonsense, strongly directive leadership, tight controls, and close supervision. Pattern A, Soft: involves a good deal of persuading, “buying” compliance from subordinates, benevolent paternalism, or so-called good (that is, manipulative) human relations.

Pattern A & Pattern B Behavior (continued) Theory Y views lead to Behavior Pattern B: Characterized by a commitment to mutually shared objectives, high levels of trust, respect, satisfaction from work, and authentic, open relationships. Pattern A, Soft, is often mistaken for Behavior Pattern B. See figure 1.1 for comparison of underlying assumptions.

Rensis Likert Systems 1, 2, 3, and 4 Based on studies of schools and other organizations, Likert identified four systems describing management styles. System 1 --Management is seen as having no trust in subordinates. System 2 –Management has condescending confidence and trust in subordinates. System 3 –Management seen as having substantial but not complete trust in subordinates. System 4 --Subordinates make specific decisions at lower levels. These ideas are supported by many well-known researchers.

No Child Left Behind The reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA). Signed by President George W. Bush on January 8, 2002. Signified a clear shift in federal role toward policy maker and reformer.

NCLB (continued) Three goals of NCLB: Closing the achievement gap for disadvantaged students. Improving the preparation of teachers and increasing their compensation so as to have every classroom in America staffed by a “highly qualified” teacher by the end of the 2005–2006 school year. Instituting closely monitored systems of accountability for students, teachers, and schools. NCLB mentions research 116 times, giving rise to controversy over the operational definition of scientifically-based research.

Research Methods in Education Education research has not been held in high esteem in the research community. A scholarly discipline has a well-defined body of knowledge from theory and research. The “gold standard” for research are studies that use randomized selection and assignment of participants into experimental and control groups.

Examples of Gold Standard Research Framingham Heart Study Over 5,000 participants since 1948. Cigarette smoking, cholesterol level, and hypertension increased risk of heart disease. Tennessee Student-Teacher Achievement Ratio (STAR). Began in 1985 for four years. Over 7,000 students in 300 k-3 classes, randomly assigned. Small classes (<18) improved student achievement and grade retention; Low SES students gained more than high SES students; Large classes with aides were no better than large classes with no aides.

Impact on School Leaders In the wake of NCLB, School leaders should be cognizant of what constitutes “good research”. NCLB has been highly criticized, not in its focus on scientifically-based research or accountability, but in the over-reliance on high-stakes testing and mandates whose costs are borne by the states. Pontiac School District v. Spellings –defendant wins in US District Court. Many educational leadership organizations are strong advocates for changes in NCLB, such as AASA, NASSP, NAESP, NEA, CEC, and the National PTA.

Leadership as Coaching Since 1980s, education literature on school reforms and school leadership has been critical of leadership preparation. Mortimer Adler’s three methods of teaching well: didactic instruction Socratic method coaching

Leadership as Coaching (continued) Coaching is an effective method used in leadership. Although techniques and leadership may differ, the metaphor of an athletic coach, may be helpful. This book uses the metaphor of a “game plan” to develop educational leadership students’ theory of practice as leaders. See discussion and suggestions for developing a theory of practice in the Reflective Activities section of Chapter 1.