The Gestalt Revolt Gestalt revolution in Germany took place around the same time as 1912: Watson begins attack on Wundt and Titchener Thorndike and Pavlov: animal research having impact Psychoanalysis 10 years old

Gestalt vs. Behaviorism Gestalt and Behaviorist Revolutions were “friendly” at first: Both opposed Wundt’s focus on sensory elements, but when Wundt faded, ended up opposing each other They eventually collided over consciousness: Gestalt psychologists accepted it and criticized attempts to reduce it to elements Behavioral psychologists refused it entirely

Gestalt Origins A protest against Wundtian psychology Wundt’s psychology Sensory elements as inert atoms combined through mechanical associations Gestaltists criticized this as brick-and-mortar psychology: “We see whole objects like chairs and books, not sensory elements like brightness and hue.” The whole is different from the sum of its parts

Gestalt Origins More to perception than meets the eye Perception goes beyond the sensory elements These elements are only physical data coming to the sense organs The brain does more than just assemble the pieces

We’ve Heard this Before Kant (1724-1804) The meaningful organization of sensory elements Is not a mechanical process of association Mind creates a unitary experience Brentano (1838-1917) Psychology should study the act of experiencing (Act Psychology)

Roots of Gestalt Psychology Ernst Mach (1838-1916) A physicist! His work on Sensation influenced Gestalt Psychology Discussed spatial (geometric figures) and temporal (melodies) patterns Considered them to be sensations independent of their elements

Mach Bands

Roots of Gestalt Psychology Christian von Ehrenfels (1859-1932) Psychologist: U. of Prague Elaborated on Mach’s Ideas Perceptions are often independent of stimuli (Melodies) Gestalt qualitäten: An experience that cannot be explained by summing elements

Roots of Gestalt Psychology Carl Stumpf (1848-1936) Appointed to professorship at the University of Berlin Wundt’s major rival Two of his students founded Gestalt Psychology Kurt Koffka Wolfgang Köhler

Werthheimer, Koffka, and Köhler Wertheimer, a student of von Ehrenfel Koffka and Köhler with Stumpf's students

Phenomenology University of Göttingen 1909-1915: phenomenological psychologists Phenomenology (Stumpf's introspective method) “...an approach to knowledge based on an unbiased description of immediate experience as it occurs, not analyzed or reduced to elements.” Uncorrected observation Experience not analyzed into elements Involves naïve experience (anyone can do it).

The Changing Zeitgeist in Physics Physics zeitgeist toward end 19th century moving away from atomism to force fields Fields of force: “regions or spaces traversed by lines of force, such as of a magnet or electric current.”

The Changing Zeitgeist in Physics Physicists’ descriptions of fields and organic wholes: authentication for: Kohler: background in physics and studied with Max Planck Saw connection between field physics and Gestalt wholes Gestalt psychology as an application of field physics to parts of psychology

The phi phenomenon: A challenge to Wundtian Psychology A product of Wertheimer's 1910 research Developed riding a train while on vacation Involved seeing movement when no actual physical motion occurs

The phi phenomenon

Describe What You Saw Movement Changing colors? If lines are flashed at slower speeds (200+ milliseconds between flashes) , the impression of movement is lost There is an optimum (60 milliseconds) Wertheimer called it an “impression of movement”

The phi phenomenon This movement cannot be explained with traditional Wundtian methods The brain is creating movement where none actually exists 1912: Wertheimer published results in article “Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement” Article indicates formal start of Gestalt school

Another Example Train an animal to find food behind an object: Food Test: Which will it choose?

Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) Background Attended lectures by von Ehrenfels Studied philosophy and psychology at University of Berlin 1904: PhD from University of Würzburg with Külpe 1921: co-founded Psychological Research 1933: fled Germany top the New School for Social Research in New York “Laws of Organization…” is on line

Productive Thinking in Humans Based on book by Wertheimer published posthumously (1945) Thinking as done in terms of wholes The learner regards the situation as a whole The teacher must present the situation as a whole The whole problem must dominate the parts At different ages At various levels of problem difficulty

Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) Background 1909: PhD from university of Berlin with Stumpf 1910: began association with Wertheimer and Köhler at University of Frankfurt

Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) 1922: “Perception: an Introduction to Gestalt-Theorie” published in American journal Psychological Bulletin Described Gestalt psychology’s basic concepts and research results and implications 1st introduction to Gestalt theory for U.S. Psychologists “Perception” in title led to misunderstanding that was the sole interest of Gestaltists Gestalt movement actually had a broader concern Problems of thinking and learning Ultimately: with all aspects of conscious experience

Wolfgang Köhler (1887- 1967) Trained in physics with Max Planck Convinced that Gestalten occur in psychology as well as in physics Psychology must become allied with physics 1909: Ph.D. From university of Berlin with Stumpf

Wolfgang Köhler (1887- 1967) 1913-1920: unable to leave Canary Islands during WWI Studies the behavior of chimpanzees 1917: The Mentality of Apes 1922: succeeded Stumpf at U. of Berlin Static and Stationary Physical Gestalts (1920) Suggested Gestalt theory as general law of nature

Wolfgang Köhler (1887- 1967) 1935: left Germany due to anti-nazi activities Criticized regime in classroom lectures Leaders of the German psychological society went even further, firing Jewish journal editors, lauding Hitler, and proclaiming the Jews “evil influence” Emigrated to U.S. To teach at Swarthmore college

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization 1923: Wertheimer's Article Perceive wholes, not clusters of sensations Perceptual organization occurs instantly and is spontaneous and inevitable Brain as a dynamic system; All active elements interact Organizing principles not dependent on either higher mental processes or past experience

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization Pragnanz (good figure): Stimulus patterns are seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible.

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization Similarity: Similar things appear to be grouped together.

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization Good Continuation: Points forming smooth paths are usually components of the same object

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization Proximity/Nearness

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization Common Fate

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization Meaningfulness: Sensations are more likely to be grouped if the group creates a meaningful object.

Isomorphism Theory about neurological correlates of perceived Gestalts Gestalt: view the cortex as a dynamic system Associationists: brain is Passive Incapable of actively organizing sensory elements received Incapable of modifying sensory elements received

Anatomy and Gestalt Psychology Faces LGN CORTEX Retina Reticular Formation Vase

The spread of Gestalt psychology Mid-1920’s A coherent and dominant school in Germany Koffka and Köhler: many lectures in the United States 1933 Nazi regime: shift of Gestalt psychology to the United States

Slow acceptance in the United States Behaviorism was at its peak A language barrier Belief that Gestalt psychology dealt solely with perception Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka at small colleges without graduate programs, thus no graduate research assistants Gestalt focus of protest (Wundt) no longer of concern in U.S.

The Battle with Behaviorism Gestalt criticisms of its new target Reductionistic and atomistic Deals with artificial abstractions (S-R units) Denies the validity of introspection Eliminates consciousness Would make psychology no more than a collection of animal research Conflicts between proponents of the two schools: increasingly emotional and personal

Field Theory: Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) The trend in late 19th-century science Term as associated with Lewin’s work: “Lewin’s system using the concept of fields of force to explain behavior in terms of one’s field of social influences.” Extended beyond the orthodox Gestalt framework to include human needs, personality, and social influences on behavior

Extending the Boundaries Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) A German War Hero WWI Exiled by Nazis in 1933 Field Theory B = f (p,e) Behaviors must be considered within the contexts of time and space Objects within the “life space” are assigned valences and their influence determines the individual’s resulting position within the life space

Extending the Boundaries Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) Field Theory as a foundation for understanding conflict Tension systems affect recall Zeigarnik Effect: Recall for an interrupted task is better than that of a completed task Study sessions should end with questions Deutsch and Collins (1951) segregated/desegregated housing

Extending the Boundaries Group behavior: function of the total field situation at a given time Effects of authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership styles on behavior of boys Authoritarian style: aggressive behavior Democratic style: friendly with more tasks completed

Criticisms of Gestalt psychology Basic criticisms Organization of perceptual processes accepted as fact rather than studied scientifically Gestalt position is vague Basic concepts and terms are not defined with sufficient rigor Too preoccupied with theory at the expense of research and empirical support Research lacks adequate controls Its unquantified data elude statistical analysis Gestalt experimental work is inferior to that of the behaviorists Insight learning: not replicable Poorly defined physiological assumptions

Gestalt Rebuttals A young science’s explanation and definitions are necessarily incomplete Incomplete is not the same vague Has from the beginning emphasized experimentation Has engendered a considerable amount of research Qualitative results take precedence over quantitative ones Gestalt research is exploratory Gestalt research is within a different framework than the behaviorists’ Gestalt speculations about physiological assumptions are a tentative but useful adjunct to their system

Contributions of Gestalt psychology Permanent imprint on psychology Influenced work in “perception, learning, thinking, personality, social psychology, and motivation Retained its identity, not absorbed by the mainstream as was behaviorism

Focus on consciousness Fostered interest in consciousness as a legitimate problem for psychology Centered on phenomenology, not on the Wundt/Titchener elements of consciousness Recognizes consciousness cannot be studied with the precision and objectivity the behaviorists demand Phenomenological approach to psychology accepted more by European than by U.S. Psychologists This phenomenology influenced humanistic psychology movement in U.S.