1 Psychology 320: Psychology of Gender and Sex Differences February 7 Lecture 46

2 Office Hour Invitations February 7, 11:30-2:30, Kenny

A little R&R …. (Review and Reflect) 3

4 Education, Careers and Work 3. Do females and males value similar job characteristics? 2. How do females and males divide occupational and domestic labour? 1. What sex differences in education have been found in other countries? (continued)

5 By the end of today’s class, you should be able to: 1. discuss cultural variation in access to education for females and males. 2. discuss the social benefits associated with educating females in developing countries. 3. review recommendations to increase educational opportunities for females in developing countries.

6 5. explain the phenomenon of “deviance neutralization.” 6. discuss sex similarities and differences in preferred job characteristics. 4. describe contemporary employment rates and domestic labour contributions among females and males. 7. review Major and Konar’s model of sex differences in salary expectations.

7 What sex differences in education have been found in other countries? (continued)

CountryRatio of Girls to Boys Afghanistan45.6 Bangladesh104.7 Bulgaria97.5 Cambodia83.9 Canada99.8 Ethiopia69.0 Ghana88.6 India78.6 Iraq76.3 Morocco85.1 Nicaragua105.3 Nigeria80.0 United States100.4 Yemen Ratio of Girls to Boys Enrolled in Primary and Secondary Education Around the World (World Bank, 2002)

CountryPercent Female Argentina59 Australia54 Canada56 Ethiopia26 India39 Iran49 Israel56 Japan45 Kenya34 Morocco44 Russia57 Saudi Arabia58 Turkey41 United States56 Vietnam42 9 Percentage of All College and University Students Who are Female Across the World (United Nations, 2005)

10 Many societal benefits arise from the education of females (e.g., healthier offspring, reduced gender inequality). The UN Children’s Fund (2007) suggests the following strategies to enhance educational access for females in developing countries:

11 1. Build more schools, especially in rural areas. 2. Lower costs of educating children. 3. Teach parents about the importance of educating girls. 4. Provide programs to prevent teenage pregnancy. 5. Encourage teen mothers to stay in school. 6. Attach day-care centres to schools. 7. Recruit more female teachers.

12 How do females and males divide occupational and domestic labour? Over the past several decades, women’s participation in the paid labour force has increased steadily. Today, women comprise 48% of the Canadian labour force (Statistics Canada, 2010). 66% of these women have children under the age of 3.

Women and Men as a Percentage of Total Employment (Almey, 2006; Statistics Canada, 2010) Percentage of Total Employment 13

Percentage of Women with Children Under the Age of Three Who Are Employed (Almey, 2006; Ferrao, 2010) Percentage Employed 14

15 Nevertheless:  females are more likely than males to be employed in part-time positions: 70% of part-time workers are female (Almey, 2006; Ferrao, 2010).  females are less likely than males to be employed: 58% of Canadian women vs. 65% of Canadian men are employed (Ferrao, 2010).  few males—7%—assume the role of “househusband” (Smith, 2007).

16  occupations are segregated on the basis of sex.  females are more likely than males to perform domestic activities (e.g., housework), irrespective of their employment status.

OccupationPercent Female Accountants, auditors62 Nurses92 Teachers (non-college, non-university)73 Social workers82 Health Technicians76 Secretaries97 Household service89 Engineers14 Mathematicians, computer scientists27 Chemists, material scientists41 Mechanics9 Construction9 Firefighter5 Police, detectives23 Percent Women in Various Occupations (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008) 17

Proportion of Household Labour Wife’s Economic Dependence (-1=High, 1=Low) Proportion of Household Labour Performed as a Function of Sex and Economic Dependence (Greenstein, 2000) 18

19 “Breadwinner” wives do more domestic work than wives who earn salaries similar to their husbands. Economically-dependent husbands do less domestic work than husbands who earn salaries similar to their wives. Explanation: Deviance neutralization (Greenstein, 2000; also see Ortega & Tanaka, 2004).

20 Do females and males value similar job characteristics? A meta-analytic study (Konrad et al., 2000; also see Hofstede, 2001, 2010) has investigated the job characteristics valued by females and males:

Sex Differences in Preferences for Job Characteristics (Konrad et al., 2000) 21

22 Consistent with the sex difference for the value placed on “earnings,” research has shown that females have lower salary expectations than males:

FemalesMales Business administration Entry pay Peak pay 36,600 73,000 45, ,400 Biology Entry pay Peak pay 49,900 82,600 77, ,000 English Entry pay Peak pay 24,800 45,300 25,800 88,400 Psychology Entry pay Peak pay 32,100 60,400 32,600 60,700 Overall Entry pay Peak pay 34,600 64,600 42, ,600 Expected Salary by Sex (Heckert et al., 2002) 23

24 Major and Konar (1984) suggest that four factors account for the lower salary expectations of females in relation to males:

Sex Importance of Earnings Pay Expectations Major and Konar’s (1984) Model of Sex Differences in Salary Expectations Career Path Factors Job Input Factors Social Comparison Standards 25

26 By the end of today’s class, you should be able to: 1. discuss cultural variation in access to education for females and males. 2. discuss the social benefits associated with educating females in developing countries. 3. review recommendations to increase educational opportunities for females in developing countries.

27 5. explain the phenomenon of “deviance neutralization.” 6. discuss sex similarities and differences in preferred job characteristics. 4. describe contemporary employment rates and domestic labour contributions among females and males. 7. review Major and Konar’s model of sex differences in salary expectations.