BECOMING AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER Teachers, Schools, and Society A Brief Introduction to Education second edition David Miller Sadker Karen R. Zittleman BECOMING AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER Chapter 11

Academic Learning Time (ALT) TIME ON TASK Allocated Time Engaged Time Academic Learning Time (ALT) Amount of time scheduled for a subject Allocated time in which students are actively involved with subject matter Engaged time with high student success rate

Engaged Time + High Success Rate = Academic Learning Time How can you tell whether students are performing at a high success rate? Guidelines: At least _____%* of teacher questions should result in accurate student answers. (Important for younger students and for those needing more time.) During independent practice, the success rate should be almost _____%**. *70% **100% Jere Brophy and Carolyn Evertson, Learning from Teaching: A Developmental Perspective (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1976). See also R. Marliave and J. Filby, “Success Rates: A Measure of Task Appropriateness,” in C. W. Fischer and D. Berliner (eds.), Perspectives on Instructional Time (New York: Longman, 1986); Gary Borich, Effective Teaching Methods (Columbus, OH: Merrill, 1988); Richard Kindsvatter et al., Dynamics of Effective Teaching (New York: Longman, 1992).

HIGH SUCCESS RATE (Continued) In theory… High Success Rate = Achievement In reality… Students are often working at levels of failure. In one study, 14% of the time, student answers to teacher questions were 100 percent wrong.a Researcher Jere Brophy concludes that teachers have a tendency to assign tasks that are too difficult, rather than too easy.b aGary Davis and Margaret Thomas, Effective Schools and Effective Teachers (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1989). bJere Brophy, “Classroom Organization and Management,” The Elementary School Journal 83, no. 4 (1983).

ESTIMATED TIME FOR ACADEMIC LEARNING Figure 11.1 Source: Carol Simon Weinstein and Andrew Migano, Jr., Elementary Classroom Management: Lessons from Research and Practice, 4th ed. New York, McGraw-Hill, 2006.

JACOB KOUNIN’S PATTERNS TO AVOID DURING TIMES OF TRANSITION FLIP-FLOPS Teacher terminates one activity, begins another, then returns to the original activity. OVERDWELLING Teacher spends more time than is necessary to correct an infraction of classroom rules. FRAGMENTATION Teacher breaks directions into choppy steps instead of one fluid unit. THRUSTS Teacher interrupts classroom momentum with random, unrelated comments. DANGLES Teacher begins a thought, then leaves it hanging without completion.

PEDAGOGICAL CYCLE AND SAMPLE CLASSROOM DIALOGUE Figure 11.2

BLOOM’S TAXONOMY APPLIED TO QUESTIONING LEVELS Level I: Knowledge Recall information. Rely on memory or senses to provide answer. Level II: Comprehension Students go beyond simple recall. Demonstrate ability to arrange and organize previously learned information mentally. Level III: Application Apply previously learned information to answer a problem. Level IV: Analysis Use three kinds of cognitive processes: Identify causes, reasons, or motives. Reach a conclusion. Find evidence to support a conclusion. Level V: Synthesis Develop original communication, make a prediction, and solve problems with many possible answers. Level VI: Evaluation Judge the merits of an aesthetic work, idea, or solution to a problem.

Student Generated Responses BLOOM’S TAXONOMY Student Generated Responses Key Words or Examples Level I Knowledge Level II Comprehension Level III Application Level IV Analysis Level V Synthesis Level VI Evaluation

WAIT TIME: CHANGES IN STUDENT BEHAVIOR Longer responses Statements supported with evidence Speculative thinking increases More student questions Fewer failures to respond More students participate Fewer discipline problems Better performance on higher-order thinking skills

WAIT TIME: CHANGES IN TEACHER BEHAVIOR Comments more fluent Discussion more logical More higher-order questions Higher expectations of students

TEACHER REACTIONS Figure 11.3

EFFECTIVE USE OF PRAISE Praise works best when: it is contingent upon student performance it is specific it is sincere it informs students of their competence and the importance of their accomplishments it attributes success to ability or effort it uses past performance as context for present performance

EFFECTIVE USE OF FEEDBACK Corrective feedback works best when: it is specific and contingent upon student performance it focuses on student performance, not personality it provides a clear blueprint for improvement it is an environment that tells a student mistakes are acceptable it relates eventual success to effort it recognizes improvements in student performance

Student Generated Responses COOPERATIVE LEARNING Student Generated Responses Type Formal Informal Base groups Characteristics

COOPERATIVE LEARNING’S EFFECT ON STUDENTS Higher achievement Higher self-esteem More motivation Higher regard for other students Greater acceptance of racial and ethnic differences

FOUR MODELS OF INSTRUCTION TERM Student Generated Key Ideas Direct Teaching Cooperative Learning Mastery Learning Problem-Based Learning

TEACHING THAT WORKS Good teachers… Know their subject matter Are enthusiastic about teaching and their subject area Develop deep rather than shallow knowledge Connect new learning to prior knowledge Spend the major part of class time on academic activities Teach content at a level that ensures a high rate of success Are organized Structure learning experiences carefully Ensure that students have sufficient time to practice skills Clearly present both directions and content information

TEACHING THAT WORKS (Continued) Good teachers… Maintain high student interest and engagement Actively monitor student progress Involve all students (not just volunteers) in discussions Ask both higher- and lower-order questions appropriate to the objective of the lesson Use adequate wait time Provide clear academic feedback Vary student activities and procedures Hold high expectations for students Have high regard for students and treat them with respect Build classroom learning communities

HOW MUCH DO YOU THINK COMPUTERS HAVE HELPED STUDENT LEARNING? 30 40 50 60 20 10 Great amount Don’t know response Only a little Not at all Moderate 58 31 5 2 13 29 49 Percentage Public Teachers Source: MCI Nationwide Poll on Internet in Education, 1998.

MONITORING STRATEGIES Student Generated Responses How might you effectively monitor student computer work?

DIRECTIONS IN TEACHING Develop content with deep teaching Organize activities based on individual distinctions for differentiated instruction Build a learning community highlighting social interactions Practice reflective teaching

STAGES OF TEACHER DEVELOPMENT Student Generated Responses Stage Stage 4 Maturity Stage 3 Renewal Stage 2 Consolidation Stage 1 Survival Attributes

STAGES OF TEACHER DEVELOPMENT Figure 11.4 Source: Based on the work of Lillian Katz.

SCHOOL RESOURCES AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 Lowering pupil teacher ratio 0.04 0.16 0.18 0.22 Increasing teacher salaries experience education Test score units Source: Linda Darling-Hammond, “Teachers and Teaching: Testing Policy Hypothesis From a National Commission Report,” Educational Researcher, 27, No 1, Jan-Feb 1998.