CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

Sections in methodology: Setting, participants, duration Data collection: Instrument to collect data. Systematic data collection provides valid and reliable data. Data analysis: Compilation and interpretation of primary and secondary sources of information. Statistics: Need to have knowledge in statistics in quantitative research.

through questionnaire, SOURCES OF DATA Primary Source Data collected by researchers of the current study. Data gathered through questionnaire, interviews, observations etc. Secondary Source Data collected, compiled or written by other researchers e.g. books, journals, newspapers All sources must be acknowledged.

Quantitative data vs. Qualitative data

Primary sources: Quantitative  Used to quantify size, distribution and association of variables in a study population.  Ask questions such as ‘How many?’ ‘How often?’ and ‘How significant?’  Answers to questions can be counted and expressed numerically.  Use structured questionnaires that allow the researcher to quantify pre- or post-categorised answers to questions.

Primary sources: Qualitative  Identify and explore mutually related variables about human behaviour (motivations, opinions, attitudes).  Asks questions - ‘What is the nature and causes of the problem?” and “What are the consequences to affected group?”  Use flexible techniques – loosely structured interviews with open-ended questions, focus group discussions, and participant observation.  Produce qualitative data often recorded in narrative form.

METHODS TO COLLECT PRIMARY DATA Interviews Questionnaires Experiment Case Study Observation However, for a small-scale social sciences study, the most commonly used methods are interviews, questionnaires and observations.

face to face, by telephone, Effective way of gathering information Involves verbal and non-verbal communications INTERVIEW Can be conducted face to face, by telephone, online or through mail

ACTIVITY: Class – read aloud Both Autism and Asperger’s syndrome are increasingly referred to as Autism Spectrum Disorders, in that they cause delays in typical development of a child across a broad range of areas. Asperger's syndrome is at the milder end of this spectrum. These disorders begin in early childhood and continue through to adult life. They affect three crucial areas of development, which are sometimes referred to as the triad of impairments:   • Verbal and nonverbal communication • Social interaction • Imaginative or creative play. Source: http://www.autism-help.org/introduction-asperger-autism.htm

ACTIVITY: Individual task Go to this website and read the article. http://theautismnews.com/2012/03/15/child-with-autism-accused-of-shoplifting-from-boynton-mall-store/

ACTIVITY: Teamwork If you were a police officer, Who are you going to interview? What are 3 questions you would like to ask during the interview?

To avoid misleading answers by interviewees: Introduce purpose of study adequately. Phrase questions on sensitive issues in a positive way. Take sufficient time for the interview. Assure confidentiality. Information bias; Quality of data, missing cases.

data collected from the interview EFFECTIVE INTERVIEW Prepare your interview schedule Select your subjects/ key informants Conduct the interview Analyze and interpret data collected from the interview

Observations Observe verbal & Need to keep non-verbal communication, surrounding atmosphere, culture & situation Need to keep meticulous records of the observations Observations Can be done through discussions, observations of habits, rituals, review of documentation, experiments

ACTIVITY: Individual task Watch this video clip. Note down your observation.

ACTIVITY: Teamwork Can you come up with suggestions and/ or conclusions based on your observation notes? If yes, what are they? If no, why?

To avoid observer bias: See or hear things of interest and miss critical information. Need observation guidelines to conduct loosely structured interviews. Data collectors work in pairs to discuss and interpret data immediately after collecting it (while the information is freshly memorized).

EFFECTIVE OBSERVATION Determine what needs to be observed (Plan, prepare checklist, how to record data) Select your participants Random/Selected Conduct the observation (venue, duration, recording materials, take photographs ) Compile data collected Analyze and interpret data collected

Questionnaire Useful to collect The most common data collection instrument Useful to collect quantitative and qualitative information Questionnaire Contain 3 important elements: Introduction – to explain the objectives Instructions – must be clear, simple language & short User-friendly – avoid difficult or ambiguous questions

Basic terminologies:  Scales of measurement – nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio  Sample and population  Sampling methods  Reliability and validity  Normal distribution  Hypotheses testing  Tests of significance  Interpretation of data

Basic types of survey questions Open-ended Questions Free-response (Text Open End) Fill-in relevant information Close-ended Questions Dichotomous question Multiple-choice Rank Scale Categorical Numerical

ACTIVITY: Teamwork Take out the questionnaire you found from the Internet. Compare the questionnaire that you found with your team members. Choose the best one to illustrate the different types of survey questions in that questionnaire.

Defective questionnaires: - fixed or closed questions asking ‘wrong things’ - open-ended questions without guidelines - vague questions - leading questions - double barrel questions - questions not in sequence - weighing scales not standardised

EFFECTIVE QUESTIONNAIRE Prepare your survey questions (Formulate & choose types of questions, order them, write instructions, make copies) Select your respondents/sampling Random/Selected Administer the survey questionnaire (date, venue, time ) Tabulate data collected (Statistical analysis-frequency/mean/correlation/% ) Analyze and interpret data collected

Any questions so far?

To be continued…

DATA ANALYSIS Summary sheet 1. To analyse data from interviews and observation, use Checklist Manually 2. To analyse data from questionnaires, use SPSS 3. In a small scale study, the most common forms of statistical analysis presented are: Frequency Mean Percentage

DATA INTERPRETATION It involves 2 terms ‘Results’ – presentation of data/findings (statistics) ‘Discussion’ – interpretation of data/findings Things to consider when interpreting your data: Interpret findings based on the purpose and objectives of your study Relate the findings to real life context Use persuasive language to convince your readers to see the research from your point of view. Order your interpretation to highlight the most important findings Include limitations to your research. Use simple, clear language

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