Aristotle on Virtue

Introduction Student of Plato Student of Plato Teacher of Alexander the Great Teacher of Alexander the Great

Introduction Student of Plato Student of Plato Teacher of Alexander the Great Teacher of Alexander the Great A Realist, not an Idealist A Realist, not an Idealist

Introduction Student of Plato Student of Plato Teacher of Alexander the Great Teacher of Alexander the Great A Realist, not an Idealist A Realist, not an Idealist Text: Nicomachean Ethics Text: Nicomachean Ethics Lecture Notes Lecture Notes

Moral Background Heroic ideals from the Greek Dark Ages Heroic ideals from the Greek Dark Ages honour, fame, revenge, fate, courage, pride honour, fame, revenge, fate, courage, pride

Moral Background Heroic ideals from the Greek Dark Ages Heroic ideals from the Greek Dark Ages honour, fame, revenge, fate, courage, pride honour, fame, revenge, fate, courage, pride Achilles the hero Achilles the hero

Moral Background Heroic ideals from the Greek Dark Ages Heroic ideals from the Greek Dark Ages honour, fame, revenge, fate, courage, pride honour, fame, revenge, fate, courage, pride Achilles the hero – choose glory Achilles the hero – choose glory Fullest use of a man’s qualities Fullest use of a man’s qualities

Moral Background Heroic ideals from the Greek Dark Ages Heroic ideals from the Greek Dark Ages honour, fame, revenge, fate, courage, pride honour, fame, revenge, fate, courage, pride Achilles the hero – choose glory Achilles the hero – choose glory Fullest use of a man’s qualities Fullest use of a man’s qualities Interest in one’s own character rather than the general good Interest in one’s own character rather than the general good

Ethics Aristotle’s Strategy Aristotle’s Strategy 1. First describe what people ultimately search for in life. 2. Then give as philosophically precise a characterisation of this as the subject will allow. 3. Then examine the character traits that are essential to achieving what we ultimately search for.

Ethics Every action has a goal Every action has a goal “Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly every action and rational choice, is thought to aim at some good; and so the good has been aptly described as that at which everything aims.” (1094a)

Ethics Every action has a goal Every action has a goal A hierarchy exists A hierarchy exists Eg.Bridle-maker < bridles < horsemanship < war

Ethics Every action has a goal Every action has a goal A hierarchy exists A hierarchy exists Eg.Bridle-maker < bridles < horsemanship < war Most ends are instrumental Most ends are instrumental

Ethics Every action has a goal Every action has a goal A hierarchy exists A hierarchy exists Eg.Bridle-maker < bridles < horsemanship < war Most ends are instrumental Most ends are instrumental Some (one) ends are final Some (one) ends are final

Ethics There is one goal for all actions There is one goal for all actions “So if what is done has some end that we want for its own sake, and everything else we want is for the sake of this end; and if we do not choose everything for the sake of something else (because this would lead to an infinite progression, making our desire fruitless and vain), then clearly this will be the good, indeed the chief good.” (1094a)

Ethics There is one goal for all actions There is one goal for all actions Aristotle can’t prove this, but he believes it Aristotle can’t prove this, but he believes it He has a candidate final end He has a candidate final end

Eudaimonia ‘Happiness’ is the one goal for all actions ‘Happiness’ is the one goal for all actions

Eudaimonia an overall-condition of a person’s life an overall-condition of a person’s life Not a mental state Not a mental state

Eudaimonia ‘Happiness’ is the one goal for all actions ‘Happiness’ is the one goal for all actions an overall-condition of a person’s life an overall-condition of a person’s life Not a mental state Not a mental state 1. The end for which everything is pursued 2. unconditionally complete 3. self-sufficient

Eudaimonia Justified in terms of our characteristic activity Justified in terms of our characteristic activity

Eudaimonia “But perhaps saying that happiness is the chief good sounds rather platitudinous, and one might want its nature to be specified still more clearly. It is possible that we might achieve that if we grasp the characteristic activity of a human being. For just as the good – the doing well – of a flute-player, a sculptor or any practitioner of a skill, or generally whatever has some characteristic activity or action, is thought to lie in its characteristic activity, so the same would seem to be true of a human being, if indeed he has a characteristic activity.”

Eudaimonia Justified in terms of our characteristic activity Justified in terms of our characteristic activity Our capacity to reason sets us apart from all other species. Our capacity to reason sets us apart from all other species. So our characteristic activity (ergon) consists in using reason. So our characteristic activity (ergon) consists in using reason. Thus our use of reason is the key to our distinctive happiness (eudaimonia). Thus our use of reason is the key to our distinctive happiness (eudaimonia). We live a happy (eudaimonic) life only if we use reason with great skill. We live a happy (eudaimonic) life only if we use reason with great skill.

Eudaimonia Justified in terms of our characteristic activity Justified in terms of our characteristic activity Aristotle’s ideal life - one view Aristotle’s ideal life - one view Ends by telling us that the best kind of life is the life of contemplation. Ends by telling us that the best kind of life is the life of contemplation. Not many people think this is so desirable Not many people think this is so desirable It doesn’t match what he tells us elsewhere – describing a practical and active life. It doesn’t match what he tells us elsewhere – describing a practical and active life.

Eudaimonia A happy life is a life lived virtuously A happy life is a life lived virtuously

Eudaimonia Happiness requires the excellent use of reason Happiness requires the excellent use of reason Excellence in the use of reason is virtue Excellence in the use of reason is virtue Virtues are character traits Virtues are character traits

Eudaimonia A happy life is a pleasant life A happy life is a pleasant life “It is also the case that the life of [virtuous] people is pleasurable in itself. For experiencing pleasure is an aspect of the soul, and each person finds pleasure in that of which he is said to be fond, as a horse-lover finds it in a horse, and someone who likes wonderful sights finds it in a wonderful sight. In the same way, a lover of justice finds it in the sphere of justice and in general a person with virtue finds pleasure in what accords with virtue.”

Eudaimonia A happy life is a pleasant life A happy life is a pleasant life “Their life therefore has no need of pleasure as some kind of lucky ornament, but contains its pleasure in itself, because, in addition to what we have already said, the person who does not enjoy noble actions is not good. For no one would call a person just if he did not enjoy acting justly, or generous if he did not enjoy generous actions; and the same goes for the other virtues. If this is so, it follows that actions in accordance with virtue are pleasant in themselves.” (1099a)

Eudaimonia BUT pleasure is not the same as acting virtuously BUT pleasure is not the same as acting virtuously “ Nevertheless, as we suggested, happiness obviously needs the presence of external goods as well, since it is impossible, or at least no easy matter, to perform noble actions without resources. For in many actions, we employ, as if they were instruments at our disposal, friends, wealth, and political power. Again, being deprived of some things – such as high birth, noble children, beauty – spoils our blessedness.” (1099b)

Eudaimonia BUT pleasure is not the same as acting virtuously BUT pleasure is not the same as acting virtuously “For the person who is terribly ugly, of low birth, or solitary and childless is not really the sort to be happy, still less perhaps if he has children or friends who are thoroughly bad, or good but dead. As we have said, then, there seems to be an additional need for some sort of prosperity like this. For this reason, some identify happiness with good fortune, while others identify it with virtue.” (1099b)

Virtues Arete Arete ‘Excellence’ ‘Excellence’ A functionalist concept A functionalist concept

Virtues Arete Arete ‘Excellence’ ‘Excellence’ A functionalist concept A functionalist concept “For just as the good – the doing well – of a flute-player, a sculptor or any practitioner of a skill, or generally whatever has some characteristic activity or action, is thought to lie in its characteristic activity, so the same would seem to be true of a human being, if indeed he has a characteristic activity.” (1097b)

Virtues Character Character Aristotle divides virtues into virtues of character (‘moral virtues’) and virtues of reason (‘intellectual virtues’). Aristotle divides virtues into virtues of character (‘moral virtues’) and virtues of reason (‘intellectual virtues’). Virtues of character are directed towards the intelligent handling of emotions. Virtues of character are directed towards the intelligent handling of emotions. Courage: fear Courage: fear Temperance: pleasure Temperance: pleasure Magnanimity: generosity Magnanimity: generosity

Virtues Doctrine of the Mean Doctrine of the Mean Virtues lie between excess and deficiency Virtues lie between excess and deficiency

Virtues Doctrine of the Mean Doctrine of the Mean Virtues lie between excess and deficiency Virtues lie between excess and deficiency “First, then, let us consider this – the fact that [emotions] are naturally corrupted by deficiency and excess, as we see in the cases of strength and health (we must use clear examples to illustrate the unclear); for both too much exercise and too little ruin one’s strength, and likewise too much food and drink and too little ruin one’s health, while the right amount produces, increase and preserves it.” (1104a) (1104a)

Virtues Doctrine of the Mean Doctrine of the Mean Virtues lie between excess and deficiency Virtues lie between excess and deficiency “The same goes, then, for temperance, courage and the other virtues: the person who avoids and fears everything, never standing his ground, becomes cowardly, while he who fears nothing, but confronts every danger, becomes rash.” (1104a)

Virtues Doctrine of the Mean Doctrine of the Mean Application? Application? “I am talking here about virtue of character, since it is this that is concerned with feelings and actions, and it is in these that we find excess, deficiency and the mean. … [T]o have them at the right time, about the right things, towards the right people, for the right end, and in the right way, is the mean and the best; and this is the business of virtue.” (1106b)

Virtues Doctrine of the Mean Doctrine of the Mean Application? Application? “[O]ne should exert oneself and relax neither too much nor too little, but to a mean extent and as the right principle dictates; but if you grasped only this you would know nothing more – e.g. you would not know what remedies to take if someone told you to take what medical science prescribes and as a medical man prescribes it.” (1138b)

Virtues Training Training According to Aristotle, we do not become virtuous by learning about virtues. Virtues are like habits or dispositions. According to Aristotle, we do not become virtuous by learning about virtues. Virtues are like habits or dispositions. We acquire habits or dispositions by practice. We acquire habits or dispositions by practice. Thus we acquire the virtues, e.g. courage by acting as if we are courageous. Thus we acquire the virtues, e.g. courage by acting as if we are courageous. We acquire virtues predominantly in our childhood. We acquire virtues predominantly in our childhood.