Desain Kerja Chapter 23 Mata kuliah: J Pengelolaan Organisasi Entrepreneurial Dosen Pembuat: D Rudy Aryanto Tahun : 2009

Learning Objectives –Define job design –Discuss how job design can help improve work-family balance –Describe alternative job design approaches that organizations use to improve job performance –Discuss the various factors and relationships that link job design and job performance –Compare job enrichment and job enlargement design strategies –Identify specific individual differences that account for different perceptions of job content

Allowing for Work/Life Balance U.S. companies are experimenting with work design and benefits –Encouraging employees to balance their work and personal lives

Job Design Jobs are the building blocks of all organization structures Job design –The process by which managers decide individual jobs and authority –A major cause of effective job performance

Job Redesign The process by which managers reconsider –What employees are expected to do –How they are expected to do it This is a dynamic, ongoing process

Job Design Issues associated with job design and Quality of Work Life –Economic –Political –Monetary –Social –Psychological –Physical

Designing Jobs to Enhance QWL Quality of work life is a philosophy of management that –Enhances the dignity of all workers –Changes an organization’s culture –Improves the physical and emotional well-being of employees It is based on –Human relations movement of the 1950s –Job enrichment efforts of the 60s and 70s

Designing Jobs to Enhance QWL Indicators of quality of work life include –Accident rates –Sick leave usage –Employee turnover –Number of grievances filed

Designing Jobs to Enhance QWL Not yet known are trade-offs between –Gains in human terms –Improved production, quality, and efficiency through revitalization Conflicting beliefs –Delay QWL efforts in order to make the U.S. economy more competitive –Competition presents opportunities to combine QWL with reindustrialization

Job Design Attempts to… –Identify the most important needs of employees and the organization –Remove obstacles in the workplace that frustrate those needs

Work/Family Balance & Job Design Organizations are: –Directing more attention and resources toward helping employees balance work and family demands –Accommodating diverse employee needs by offering flexible work arrangements

Work/Family Balance & Job Design Benefits to companies that offer flexible work programs –Higher recruitment and retention rates –Improved morale –Lower absenteeism and tardiness –Higher levels of employee productivity

Work/Family Balance & Job Design Driving this work/life tension –More women and single parents in workforce –Increase in dual-career couples –Aging population Flexible work arrangements –Job sharing –Flextime –Telecommuting

Important Concepts of Job Design Technological Factors Social setting differences Task factorsJob analysisJob design Job performance Perceived job content Human Factors Individual differences Conceptual Model of Job Design and Job Performance

Job Performance Outcomes Objective outcomes can be measured in quantitative terms –Quantity –Quality –Absenteeism –Tardiness –Turnover For each job, implicit or explicit standards exist

Job Performance Outcomes Personal behavior outcomes are the ways one reacts to the work itself –Attending work regularly or being absent –Staying with the job or quitting –Physiological and/or health-related problems –Physical or mental impairment –Accidents or occupation-related disease

Job Performance Outcomes Intrinsic outcomes –The objects or events that follow from the workers’ own effort Extrinsic outcomes –The objects or events that follow the workers’ efforts in conjunction with other factors or persons not directly involved in the job Job satisfaction depends on –Levels of intrinsic and extrinsic outcomes –How the job-holder views those outcomes

Job Analysis The purpose of job analysis –To provide an objective description of the job itself Job analysis gathers and identifies information about job… –Content –Requirements –Context Functional Job Analysis has produced the most extensive list of occupational titles available today

Job Analysis: Job Content Job Content refers to the activities required of the job Functional job analysis (FJA) describes job content in terms of...  What the worker does in relation to data, people, and jobs  What methods and techniques the worker uses  What machines, tools, and equipment the worker uses  What materials, products, subject matter, or services the worker produces

Job Analysis: Job Requirements Job requirements –The education, experience, licenses, and other personal characteristics an individual needs to perform the job Position analysis questionnaire (PAQ) –Takes into account human characteristics, as well as task and technological factors, of jobs and job classes

Job Analysis: Job Requirements The PAQ identifies and analyzes these job aspects –Information sources critical to job performance –Information processing –Decision making –Physical activity and dexterity –Interpersonal relationships –Reactions to working conditions

Job Analysis: Job Context Job context –Describes the environment within which the job is to be performed It refers to such factors as –Physical demands and working conditions of the job –Degree of accountability and responsibility –Extent of supervision required or exercised –Consequences of error

Job Analysis: Different Settings Jobs in the Factory –Analyzed using Scientific management F. W. Taylor’s principles –Replace rule-of-thumb with scientific methods –Scientifically select, train, and develop workmen –Heartily cooperative with the workers –Divide work equally between management and workmen

Job Analysis: Different Settings Jobs in the Office –Fastest growing segment is secretarial, clerical, and information workers –Due to technological breakthroughs –Human factors must be given special attention –Tendency to overemphasize technological aspects

The Results of Job Analysis Job designs specify three characteristics of jobs –Range –Depth –Relationships

The Results of Job Analysis Job range –The number of tasks a person is expected to perform –The more tasks required, the greater the job range Job depth –Degree of influence or discretion that an individual has to choose job activities and job outcomes

Job Depth and Range High Low High Job Range Job depth College professors Hospital anesthesiologists Business packaging machine mechanics College instructors Hospital bookkeepers Business assembly-line workers College presidents Hospital chiefs of surgery Business research scientists College dept. chairpersons Hospital nurses Business maintenance repair workers

The Results of Job Analysis Job Relationships –Determined by managers’ decisions regarding departmentalization bases and spans of control –The wider the span of control, the larger the group –The larger the group, the harder it is to establish friendship and interest relationships

Departmentalization The basis for departmentalization impacts job relationships –Functional basis places jobs with similar depth and range in the same groups –Product, territory, and customer bases place jobs with dissimilar depth and range in the same group

Perceived Job Content Specific job activities and general job characteristics, as perceived by individuals performing the job –Two people doing the same job may have the same or different perceptions of job content To increase job performance by changing perceived job content, change… –Job design –Individual perceptions –Social settings

Perceived Job Content Variety Autonomy Task Identity Feedback Dealing with Others Friendship Opportunities

Individual Differences Perception of task variety is affected by individual differences in need strength –Employees with weak higher order needs are less concerned with performing a variety of tasks than are employees with strong growth needs –Even individuals with strong growth needs cannot respond continuously to the opportunity to perform more and more tasks –Performance will turn down as individuals reach the limits imposed by their abilities and time

Social Setting Differences Social settings affect perceptions of job content –Leadership style –What others say about the job Perception about job content results from the interaction of many factors in the work situation

Job Rotation and Enlargement Job Rotation –Moving managers/non-managers from one job to another –The individual completes more job activities because each job includes different tasks –Involves increasing the range of jobs and the perception of variety in job content

Job Rotation and Enlargement Job Enlargement –Increases the number of tasks for which an individual is responsible –Increases job range, but not depth

Job Enrichment Job enrichment –Increasing the discretion individuals can use to select activities and outcomes –Increases job depth and fulfills growth and autonomy needs Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation –The impetus for designing job depth

Job Enrichment Provide employees with greater opportunities to exercise discretion through… –Direct feedback –New learning –Scheduling –Uniqueness –Control over resources –Personal accountability

Job Characteristics Model Skill Variety Task Identity Task Significance Skill Variety Task Identity Task Significance Autonomy Feedback Experienced Meaningfulness of Work Experienced Responsibility for Outcomes of Work Knowledge of Actual Results of Work Activities High internal work motivation High-quality work performance High satisfaction with work Low absenteeism and turnover High internal work motivation High-quality work performance High satisfaction with work Low absenteeism and turnover Job Characteristics Personal & Work Outcomes Employee’s Growth Need Strength Employee’s Growth Need Strength Critical Psychological States

Increasing Core Dimensions of Jobs To increase core dimensions –Combine task elements –Assign whole pieces of work –Allow discretion in selection of work methods –Permit self-paced control –Open feedback channels These actions increase task variety, identity, and significance

Job Design Problems Potential job design problems –Time-consuming and costly –Unless lower-level needs are satisfied, people will not respond to opportunities to satisfy upper-level needs –Job redesign may raise employees’ expectations beyond what is possible –Change may be resisted by labor unions –May not produce tangible improvements for some time after the effort begins

Teams and Job Design The use of work teams has become common in organizations –Work teams don’t always achieve high levels of productivity, cooperation, success Researchers claim that good work team job design can lead to… –Higher levels of team productivity –Employee satisfaction –Effectiveness

Teams and Job Design Key team characteristics to address –Self-management –Participation –Task variety –Task significance –Task identity

TQM and Job Design Total quality management combines technical and human knowledge –Jobs designed with TQM in mind empower individuals to make important decisions about product and service quality

Sociotechnical Theory Focuses on interactions between –Technical demands of the job –Social demands of the job holder Compatible with TQM theory –Relates to demands of modern technology and self-motivated job behavior –In today’s global environment, sociotechnical system design has been incorporated in the TQM approach