Frequency + - Positive Alternation Negative Alternation Frequency – is simply the number of times a particular phenomenon occurs in a given period of time It may be the number of voltage polarity alternations or electromagnetic Field oscillations that take place in a span time Each alternation or oscillation is called a cycle and the frequency is Measured in cycles per second (cps), or better expressed as Hertz (Hz)

Wavelength 1 wavelength t Wavelength is the distance between two points of similar cycles of a periodic wave It is also the distance travelled by an electromagnetic wave during the time of one cycle

Bandwith (BW) f1f1 f2f2 f Bandwith is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal It is also the frequency range over which an information signal is transmitted over which a receiver or other electronic circuit operates Where: f 2 = upper frequency f 2 = lower frequency

Power (P) and Decibels (dB) Power is a fundamental quantity representing the rate at which energy is used. It is more readily measurable since it can be converted to heat Decibel literally means one-tenth of a bel, a unit named after Alexander Graham Bell. It is not an absolute unit but rather, it indicates the relation between two powers. dBm is dB above or below a reference power of one milliwatt

dB tips Power RelationshipDecibel P 2 equals P 1 dB = 0 P 2 is larger than P 1 dB is positive P 2 is smaller than P 1 dB is negative P 2 is 10 times or (100 times)dB = 10 (dB = 20) P 2 is 0.1 times or (0.01 times)dB = -10 (dB = -20 P 2 and P 1 are related by a factor of 2 or (4) dB = 3 (dB = 6) P 2 and P 1 are related by a factor of ½ or (1/4) dB = -3 (dB = -6)

Ionosphere Propagation Parameters a. Plasma Frequency (f n ) in Hz When the wave reaches a region of electron density (N), the relative permittivity of the ionized medium must be seen to be zero This in turn means that the total displacement current density is zero, and hence the effective electric field is zero Where: N = electron density in m -3

Critical Frequency (f c ) in Hz It is the highest frequency at a given ionization density that will be turned down to the earth when the beam vertically upward This frequency is determined by the maximum electron density Where: N max = maximum electron density

Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) and Secant Law It is the highest frequency that will be turned down to the earth at a given distance when beamed at a specific angle other than the normal. Normal values of MUF reach about 8 to 35 MHz, but many rise to as high as 50MHz under unusual solar activities. Where: Ө = angle of radiation in degrees

Optimum Working Frequency It is the frequency that provides the most consistent communication. It is the frequency chosen to avoid the irregularities of the ionosphere. It is chosen by practical experience about 15% lower than MUF

Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF) It is the lower limit of the range of frequencies that provide useful communication between two given points by the way of the ionosphere Absorption also increases at the lower frequencies. The frequency nearest the point where reception becomes unusable woul be the LUF

Gyrofrequency (f g ) Electrons moving in an ionized layer take a helix pat. At this frequency, where the periodic time of the wave is equal to the time required for one complete revolution about the magnetic axis, the path of the electrons becomes a very wide single loop.

Critical Angle (Ө c ) It is the highest angle of radiation that will return the wave to the earth at a given density of ionization in the layer for the frequency or wavelength under consideration.

Virtual Height (h v ) Actual Height Virtual Height

It is the apparent height of the ionized layer and is measured by sending a wave vertically to the layer and measuring the time it takes to come back to the receiver. Where: c = velocity of the light in m/s T = round trip propagation in sec Where: Ө 1 = angle of incidences of signal

Skip Zone and Skip Distance It is the area that lies between the outer limit of the ground-wave range and the inner edge of energy return from the ionosphere It is the area where no signal can be heard Skip distance is the distance between the originating site and the beginning of the ionosphereic return It is the shortest distance at which a sky wave signal will be returned to earth measured along the surface of the earth.

Factors Affecting Optimum Operating Frequency a.Location and Geography Intensity of ionizing radiation varies with locations and altitudes. The intensity is the greatest in equalitorial regions, where the sun is more directly overhead than in the higher latitudes

b. Seasonal Variations Seasonal variations are variations brought about by the revolution of the earth around the sun Our earth orbits the sun with an orbital period of 1 year bringing about our seasons: spring, summer autumn and winter The sun is the major controlling element on the behavior of the ionosphere thus ionization is stronger in summer than winter

c. Diurnal Variations Diurnal variations are variations brought about by the roataion of the earth arounf its axis. The earth rotates around its own axis within a 24-hr period that is broken up into three distinct time periods; day, transition, and night Transition period occur twice: once around sunrise and once around sunset Ionization is maximum during daylight hours and minimum during the hours of darkness

d. Cyclical Variations Are variations brought about by the solar cycle like the sunspot activities. Solar activities are characterized by sunspot numbers. Sunspot appears on the sun’s surface and are tremendous eruptions of whirling electrified gas

Ionospheric Irregularities a. Sudden Ionosphere Disturbances (SID’s) They are also called Dellinger Fadeouts or Mogel-Dellinger Fadeouts SID’s are caused by solar flares, which are gigantic emissions of hydrogen from the sun.

Travelling Ionospheric Disturbances (TID’s) They are disturbances that seriously affect the accuracy of high-frequency direction finders due to irregularities of electron densities in the ionosphere.

Ionospheric Storms They are caused by particle emissions from the sun, generally Alpha and Beta rays At these conditions, the ionosphere behaves erratically causing signal strengths to drop and fluctuate rapidly. They take about 36 hrs to reach the earth

Fading It is the fluctuation of signal strength at the receiver. It can occur because of interference between the lower and upper rays of a sky wave, between sky waves arriving by a different number of hops or different paths, or even a ground wave and a sky wave especially at the lower end of the HF band I.Interference Fading it is the most common type of fading caused by mixing of two or more signal components propagating along different path II. Polarization Fading it is a type of fading caused by the so-called Faraday Effect or Faraday Rotation

III. Focusing and Defocusing there are mainly due to atmospheric irregularities. Deformed layers can focus or defocus a signal wave if they encounter deformities that are concave or convex respectively. The motion of these structures can cause fadeouts IV. Absorption Fading It is type of fading caused by solar flare activities and particularly affects the lower frequencies V. Selective Fading it is a type of fading having different frequency ranges. This happen because ray paths in the ionosphere are different for different frequencies, and not all will necessarily experience a disturbance at a given region.