Medieval Chinese Literature (Volume B)

Background During the medieval Period of Disunion (3rd–6th centuries), Buddhism spread from India to China and took deep root in Chinese society, stimulating renewed interest in Daoist philosophy and the rise of Daoism. Classical Chinese poetry and prose peaked during the two great medieval dynasties, the Tang and the Song (7th–13th centuries). The image is a tricolored figure of a civil official. The caption states that it depicts the typical clothing of a Tang Dynasty official. Excavated at Xi’an, Shaanxi Province.

Period of Disunion (220–589) Han Empire crumbles “Way of Great Peace,” 184 Three Kingdoms Period Shu, Wu, and Wei invasion by non-Chinese in 316 The Han Empire began crumbling during the second century due to natural disasters, bad labor conditions, and political intrigues in the central government. In 184, the leader of a Daoist religious cult called “Way of Great Peace” staged an insurrection, which eventually led to the division of China into three kingdoms: Shu in the west, Wu in the south, and Wei in the northern heartland. The Three Kingdoms Period battles endured in poetry, romances, and epics of the period. Non-Chinese rulers invaded in 316 and took control of China’s north, forcing the aristocracy to flee to the southeast. Western Han bronze mirror, 2nd century B.C.E.

Buddhism Four Noble Truths Eightfold Path conversion in China relationship to Confucian beliefs Silk Road transmission Buddhism touted Four Noble Truths: pain, suffering, and anxiety are inevitable parts of human life; they are caused by human desires and attachments; it is possible to overcome these attachments; humans can triumph over them by following the Eightfold Path. China became Buddhist even though there were no forced conversions imposed by missionaries and in spite of contradictions between Confucian and Buddhist practices. Merchants brought Buddhism along the Silk Road and resonated with Daoism, which also promised personal salvation from a corrupt world. Buddhist monks abandoned the Confucian duties of filial piety, mutilated their bodies by shaving their heads, and were no longer subordinate to state power. The image is an eighth-century fresco at Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu Province. It depicts the Han Emperor Wu worshipping statues of the Buddha. The caption states that attached is a textual description of “Han Wudi” worshipping “golden men brought in 120 B.C. by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads.”

Daoism Master Texts of Laoizi and Zhuangzi Daoist practices relation to Buddhism recluse culture “Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove” Tao Gian Daoism appeared in the Master Texts of Laoizi and Zhuangzi, and included practices for longevity, breathing and sexual techniques, gymnastics, herbal medicine and alchemy. With the arrival of Buddhism in China, Daoism became an organized religion and institution with its own canonical texts, temples and pantheon of gods. It also fostered a recluse culture, as in the “Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove,” cultivated from libertine resistance to social norms, and as in the case of the poet Tao Gian, who lived on his family farm rather than serve government. The image is a photograph of the Dai Temple on Mount Tai, one of China’s Five Sacred Mountains.

Sui and Tang Dynasties (589–907) Chang’an, the old northern capital canal between the Yangzi and Yellow rivers grid pattern for urban design tea and printing Buddhism Buddhist Diamond Sutra, 868 Sui, the northern dynasty, reunified China but was quickly supplanted by the Tang Dynasty. The Sui emperors relocated to the old northern capital of Chang’an and built a canal between the Yangzi and Yellow river sthat transported goods between the north and south, reconnecting territory that had been divided for more than three centuries. Tang emperors expanded into the northwest and gained control of trade routes in the west. Chang’an was laid out in a grid pattern (Chinese style) and cultural and material elements were imported from international cultures. During this age of innovation, tea became a major commercial crop, new Buddhist schools appeared as did new reclusive poets (Hanshan), and advances in printing allowed for commercial and mass distribution, as of the Buddhist Diamond Sutra (868), considered the world’s oldest printed book. The image is a copy of the Diamond Sutra, printed in 868 C.E. and considered the world’s oldest printed book.

Tang Decline (755) civil service exam changes in poetic style Wang Wei, Li Bo, Du Fu Yuan Zhen, “The Story of Yingying” Emperor Xuanzong and Yang Guifei, 755 Bo Juyi, “Song of Lasting Regret” The civil service examination used by the Tang in recruiting its elites for government service required the composition of poetry, and poetry also became a medium of social exchange. Poetry was a way to record an individual’s personality and the country’s historic moments. Wang Wei, Li Bo, and Du Fu represented poetic prowess, and Yuan Zhen mastered the prose tale in his “The Story of Yingying.” The Tang lost power increasingly in 755 after an associate of Emperor Xuanzong’s prized concubine, Yang Guifei, rebelled (the concubine was executed in front of the emperor). Bo Juyi’s “Song of Lasting Regret” records this tragic love incident. The image is a painting of Yang Gufei mounting a horse, by Ch’ien Hsuan or Qian Xuan (1250–1300). Freer Gallery of Art.

Song Dynasty (960–1279) loss of aristocratic power Hangzhou court Mongol invasion printing technology reexamination of the Confucian classics Li Qingzhao, “song lyrics” Old aristocratic families that dominated the Tang Dynasty lost their power, and previously excluded social groups now participated in politics, largely as a result of the civil service exams. A new court was established in Hangzhou in the southeast until 1279, when the Mongols conquered China. Printing technology revolutionized Chinese society during the Song Dynasty with commercial printing and reexamination of the Confucian classics, as by Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan. Classical literature continued the forms of the Tang period but in a more reflective, introverted tone. A new form of poetry, the “song lyrics” arose to treat lighter, more domestic themes. Li Qingzhao, a female poet, excelled in this mode. The image shows four generals of the Song Dynasty, by Liu Songnian (1174–1224).

Tang China This map depicts the Tang Dynasty in China ca. 750, including areas of Tang influence though not part of the empire proper. Chinese art and culture during this medieval Period of Disunion reached an unprecedented level of sophistication and maturity. (Notably, the Medieval or “Middle” Ages in the Western literary tradition is often seen as a period of relative stagnation between the Roman age and the Renaissance.) The Tang Dynasty ruled from 618–907, during which time traditions from the north and the south were combined. The Tang constructed a canal between the Yellow and the Yangzi rivers, which enabled the movement of goods and people between northern and southern areas of China. In its early years, the Tang Dynasty also expanded its borders. The imperial capital was located at Chang’an, which had long been the capital until it was moved to Nanjing in the south. The city is shown on the map inset, with its regular grid of streets and the imperial city and palace within its walls. The capital was a true cosmopolitan hub that welcomed foreigners from China’s many land and maritime trade routes.

Test Your Knowledge Which of the following contributed to the weakening of the Han Empire (206 B.C.E—220 C.E.)? a. natural disasters b. a poorly organized army c. inflation d. emigration Answer: A Section: China’s Period of Disunion (220–589) Feedback: The Han Empire eventually crumbled after suffering through many natural disasters. Also crippling for the empire were poor labor conditions (which turned many citizens against the government) and political intrigues (which weakened the government from within).

Test Your Knowledge What religion spread widely, and quickly, throughout China, prior to the Tang and Song dynasties? a. Christianity b. Buddhism c. Islam d. Zoroastrianism Answer: B Section: New Religions of Salvation Feedback: Despite its teachings often being at odds with existing Confucian beliefs, Buddhism gained wide acceptance throughout China. It was often merged with Daoist belief.

Test Your Knowledge The Sui Dynasty united, at least in part, an otherwise disjointed Chinese nation by building what? a. the Great Wall of China b. a bridge linking the east and west c. a canal between two major rivers d. trade routes to the north and south Answer: C Section: The New Cosmopolitan Empires of Sui and Tang (589–907) Feedback: Sui emperors built a canal between the Yangzi and Yellow rivers that united territory that had long been divided.

Test Your Knowledge Which of the following was invented under the Tang Dynasty? a. printing b. fireworks c. the auto loom d. dynamite Answer: A Section: The New Cosmopolitan Empires of Sui and Tang (589–907) Feedback: Printing was invented during the Tang Dynasty, though it would not have its greatest cultural impact until the later Song Dynasty.

Test Your Knowledge Printed in 868, which of the following is considered to be the oldest printed book? a. the Kama Sutra b. the Tao c. the Vulgate Bible d. the Buddhist Diamond Sutra Answer: D Section: The New Cosmopolitan Empires of Sui and Tang (589–907) Feedback: The Buddhist Diamond Sutra is considered the first printed book. It was not discovered by archaeologists until the early twentieth century.

This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for The Norton Anthology of World Literature