Paper Timeline

Clay Tablets - 3100BC Clay tablets originate in Mesopotamia in the Sumarian culture around 3100 BC. The Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the best known stories from this time period was found on twelve Clay tablets in King Ashurbanipal's library at Nineveh. The Mesopotamian area is known for it’s river and canal systems which provide a readily available source for clay. Characters on the tablets “are formed from the wedge-shaped marks which a corner of the reed makes when pressed into the damp clay - a style of writing known as cuneiform.” (Historyworld) After the clay dried it became a highly durable material. While this form could withstand many catastrophes such as fire, it drawbacks were many. As rock drawings gave way to clay tablets, so did clay tablets to Papyrus. List of names, C2400-2300 Retrieved Oct, 2007 from www.slsa.sa.gov.au/exhibitions/treasures/claytablet.htm

Papyrus - 3000 BC Clay tablets are impractical and difficult to work with. Papyrus was easier to transport, and could be produced separate from it’s use. The use of papyrus as a writing material begins around 3000 BC. It is made from the the papyrus plant which grew in abundance on the Nile. The making of papyrus involves using the stem of the plant. The stem is peeled into thin layers. These strips are layered at a right angle and pounded together until the layers adhere to each other. Papyrus sheets differ from paper in that the individual plant fibers do not mesh. The natural plant starch is enough to keep the layers together. Papyrus sheets were often kept in scrolls for storage. Since Papyrus is virtually acid free, it has an indefinite shelf life. However, excessive moisture can cause it to decay and excessive dryness can make it brittle. Aside from the damage from physical manipulation, wars, and weather related issues, papyrus found in ancient times can be in nearly perfect condition. Papyrus Sheet being formed. Retrieved Oct, 2007 from www.pharaoh.de/papyrusinfo.html

Papyrus cont. Although the distribution of papyrus was wide spread, political pressures from Pergamum might have hastened the decline of the medium. It is indicated that “the Library of Pergamum (in what is now Turkey) threatened to overtake the celebrated Library of Alexandria as the best library in the world, claiming the largest collection of papyrus rolls. As a result, the Egyptians ceased the supply of papyrus to Pergamum, so the Pergamenians invented an alternative writing material, parchment, which is made from thin layers of animal skin”(Langville and Meyer) The specific location of this material, over harvesting, a climate change, and these political maneuverings eventually lead to the end of papyrus as a writing material. Although papyrus is a symbol of life in the ancient word the plant known as “Cyperus papyrus has become virtually extinct from present-day Egypt as a naturally thriving plant.” (Ryan) From the “Books of the Dead”

Bamboo Books - 1500 BC ”Thirty-Six Strategies” The Chinese are well known for their innovation with paper. However, they had developed an even earlier writing material. Bamboo Books are strips of bamboo which were written on vertically. These strips were linked together to form a book. The modern Chinese symbol “evolves from a pictogram of bamboo strips threaded together.” (HistoryWorld) “The Art of War” A Bamboo book unfolded

Wax Tablets - 500 BC Phoenician Wax Tablet Wax tablets, were used mostly for casual correspondence such as record keeping, or letters. There were made from a block of wood that had been hollowed out to create a recess, which was then filled with wax. The wax could then be melted in order to reuse the tablet. A sharp stylus was used in writing. Two or more individual tablets could be joined by lacing to form something similar to the codex. Evidence of wax tablets have been found throughout the Roman empire. They have been found as far north as Britain, also into Russia, and in Pompeii. Phoenician Wax Tablet Retrieved Oct, 2007 from http://phoenicia.org/imgs/logbook.jpg The Trawsfynydd Roman Will Retrieved Oct, 2007 from www.museumwales.ac.uk

Parchment - 200 BC The rivalry between Eumenes II of the Pergamum library and King Ptolemy of the Alexandrian library is credited in initiating the invention of parchment. Parchment became the standard writing material in Europe for nearly 1000 years. Parchment is made from animal skin that has been treated by soaking it in a liquor bath. This allows for the de-hairing of the skin. As well as ensuring it’s pliability. Tannins are added to aid in preserving. Parchment made during this time have very low acid levels which allows for it’s ability to be preserved indefinitely. Although the words Parchment and Vellum are used interchangeably, true Vellum is made specifically of calf skin. This enables the skin to be relatively free from marks which results in a material that tends to be of a higher quality than average parchment. The use of Parchment marks the widespread use of the codex book form. The use of Parchment as a writing material never completely died Skins Being Stretched in Preparation Retrieved Oct, 2007 from http://www.stam.net/tefillin_in_detail.html Retrieved Oct, 2007 from www.elcivics.com/declaration_independence.html

Huun/Amatl - 500 AD Dresden Codex Retrieved Oct, 2007 http://www.religionfacts.com/mayan_religion/index.htm Amate Fig Tree Retrieved Oct, 2007 from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amatl Huun was developed in South America independent of the paper making activities in China, and Europe. The Mayan civilization made this cloth like paper from the inner bark of various fig trees. It was later adapted by the Aztecs and is better known by the name of Amatl. It’s preparation is similar to that of traditional paper. The bark is soaked and then pounded. “These pieces of bark are cut into strips which are easily joined together by beating the bark again.” (Von Hagen) This suggest that the fibers do mesh as with their paper counterpart. The end product is a cloth like material which indeed the Mayan’s used as for clothing, as well as for writing, in religious ceremonies, and for Tribute. Three major codices have been proven to be made from this paper; The Dresden Codex, The Tro-Cortesianus Codex, and The Peresianus Codex.

Paper - China 105 BC The invention of paper is credited to a Chinese court official named Ts’ai Lun. However some archeological evidence shows that paper existed nearly 200 years earlier. “Ancient paper pieces from the Xuanquanzhi ruins of Dunhuang in China's northwest Gansu province apparently were made during the period of Emperor Wu who reigned between 140 BC and 86 BC.”(Georgia Tech) Initially paper was made from a slurry created from pounded Mulberry and water. The slurry is drained through a screen made from bamboo reeds. “Chinese papermakers developed a number of specialties, including sizing (making the paper ink-proof), coating, and dyeing.” (Tschudin) Paper spreads from China to Korea and Japan. In Japan they refine the skill to an art, and continue to make some of the finest paper today. Retrieved Oct, 2007 from www.paperhistory.org/china.htm

Samarkand - 751 AD The battle at Samarkand in 751 AD marks an important note in the history of paper. During the battle between the Chinese and Arabs, Chinese prisoners were taken. With these Chinese prisoners, the knowledge of papermaking begins it’s travel westward. From there the knowledge of paper travels to Baghdad, northern Africa, and arrived in Europe in the 10th century. The Path of Paper Retrieved Oct, 2007 From http://www.justpacific.com/pacific/papers/barkcloth~paper.html

Paper - Europe Paper took nearly five centuries to travel from the Middle East, to Europe. “Early paper was at first disfavored by the Christian world as a manifestation of Moslem culture, and a 1221 decree from Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II declared all official documents written on paper to be invalid.” (Georgia Tech) The first European Paper Mill was established in 1151 AD in Xativa, Spain. These Paper Mills paved the way for the Printing Press. European’s used cotton rags instead of plants for their paper material. Rags were cleaned, separated for color, and then pounded until the fibers came apart. A slurry was then made from these cotton fibers. The whiter the paper the more highly it was regarded. The Printing Press, developed in the 1430’s by Johannes Gutenberg, hastened the change from papyrus to paper. Paper Mill Retrieved Oct, 2007 from www.herisem.be

Paper - Rags to Wood Paper mills came to America in the late 1600’s. “The first paper mill in America was established in 1690 by William Rittenhouse near Germantown, Pennsylvania. In 1688, Rittenhouse left Holland, where he had been an apprentice papermaker, and settled in Philadelphia, near the print shop of William Bradford. The Rittenhouse mill remained the only mill in America until 1710.”(Georgia Tech) Eventually rags became short in supply, and alternative materials had to be found. Once wood was found to be acceptable, it quickly took over as the material of choice making paper. However, the natural acid, lignin, along with the chemicals used to treat the pulp created such a high acid content that many pages made during the industrial revolution have literally burned themselves up. In America, women were often used for this task as cheap labor. Retrieved Oct, 2007 from www.mainepreservation.com/dayswork/dayswork8.shtml Rag separating room. Retrieved Oct, 2007 from www.neenahlibrary.org/industryphoto.htm

References Di Curci, M The History and Technology of Parchment Making. Retrieved Oct, 2007 from http://www.sca.org.au/scribe/articles/parchment.htm Langville, N., Meyer, C.D. Google's PageRank and Beyond:The Science of Search Engine Rankings. Princeton, 2006 History World Retrieved Oct, 2007 from www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa92 Ryan, D. The Biblical Archaeologist. Vol. 51, No. 3. (Sep., 1988), pp. 132-140. Retrieved Oct, 2007 from http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00060895%28198809%2951%3A3%3C132%3 P% E2.0.CO%3B2-%23 Tschudin, P. F. Paper. Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History, 2005, Vol. 4, p. 1423 University of Michigan. Papyrus making 101 http://www.lib.umich.edu/pap/exhibits/papyrus_making/pm_intro.html Von Hagen, V.W. The Aztec and Maya Papermakers New York:J.J. Augustin Publishing. Georgia Tech. Robert C Williams Paper Museum. Retrieved Oct, 2007 from http://www.ipst.gatech.edu/amp/collection/museum_invention_paper.htm