Chapter 7: Human Memory

Human Memory: Basic Questions How does information get into memory? How is information maintained in memory? How is information pulled back out of memory?

Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory

Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory The role of attention Focusing awareness Selective attention = selection of input –Filtering: early or late?

Figure 7.3 Models of selective attention

Levels of Processing: Craik and Lockhart (1972) Incoming information processed at different levels Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes Encoding levels: –Structural = shallow –Phonemic = intermediate –Semantic = deep

Group 1 As you listen to the words, imagine what the word looks like to help you recall it later. –Example: “horse” “HORSE” Horse

Group 2 As you listen to the words, image a picture of whatever the word is in your head to help you recall it later. –Example: “horse”

Figure 7.4 Levels-of-processing theory

Figure 7.5 Retention at three levels of processing

Enriching Encoding: Improving Memory Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding –Thinking of examples Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered –Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding theory Self-Referent Encoding –Making information personally meaningful

Exit Slip On your own piece of paper explain how you should use the following to remember 5 of your vocab terms for an upcoming quiz. –Elaboration –Visual Imagery –Self-Referent Encoding –How would these things be impacted by the level of processing?

Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory Analogy: information storage in computers ~ information storage in human memory Information-processing theories –Subdivide memory into 3 different stores Sensory, Short-term, Long-term

Figure 7.7 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage

Sensory Memory Brief preservation of information in original sensory form Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second –George Sperling (1960) Classic experiment on visual sensory stores

Figure 7.8 Sperling’s (1960) study of sensory memory

Sensory Memory Examples Teacher calls out a distracted student and says “Please repeat what I just said” Student is able to repeat what the teacher had just been talking about but has no idea what’s going on in class. Held in sensory memory as an echo Movies, Sporting events, Sparklers, etc., held in sensory memory as an icon

Short Term Memory (STM) Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus or minus 2 (George Miller, 1956) –Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit (phone numbers, SSN) Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal –Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information

I need a volunteer!

Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory” Baddeley (1986) – 3 components of working memory –Phonological rehearsal loop Repeating info –Visuospatial sketchpad What does your refrigerator have in it right now? –Executive control system Comparing/contrasting, problem solving

Long-Term Memory: Unlimited Capacity Permanent storage? –Flashbulb memories –Recall through hypnosis Debate: are STM and LTM really different? Decay vs. Interference based forgetting

Exit Slip 1.Describe the 3 basic systems of memory AND give an example of each. –Sensory Memory –Short Term Memory –Long Term Memory

How is Knowledge Represented and Organized in Memory? Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies Schemas Semantic Networks

Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in retrieval –Retrieval cues Recalling an event –Context cues Reconstructing memories –Misinformation effect Car Crash: hit or smashed? Recall glass? Source monitoring, reality monitoring

Forgetting: When Memory Lapses Retention – the proportion of material retained –Recall –Recognition –Relearning Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

Figure 7.16 Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve for nonsense syllables

Figure 7.17 Recognition versus recall in the measurement of retention

Why Do We Forget? Ineffective Encoding Decay theory Interference theory –Proactive –Retroactive

Figure 7.19 Retroactive and proactive interference PORN: Proactive Old Retroactive New

The Physiology of Memory Biochemistry –Alteration in synaptic transmission Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems Protein synthesis for LTM storage

The Physiology of Memory Anatomy –Hippocampus, Cerebellum, Prefrontal cortex Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to create new long term memories Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memories from the past

Figure 7.23 The anatomy of memory

Figure 7.25 Retrograde versus anterograde amnesia

Are There Multiple Memory Systems? Declarative vs. Procedural Semantic vs. Episodic Prospective vs. Retrospective (below)

Figure 7.26 Theories of independent memory systems

Improving Everyday Memory Engage in adequate rehearsal Distribute practice and minimize interference Emphasize deep processing and transfer- appropriate processing Organize information Use verbal mnemonics