Part II

 In addition to sociology he studied economics, law, philosophy and comparative history.  Development of modern capitalism  How modern society is different from earlier forms of social organization.

 The nature and causes of social change.  Inspired by and critical of Marx  Rejected materialist conception of history  Saw class conflict as less significant  Economic factors are important, but ideas and values have just as much impact on social change.  Sociology should focus on social action not social structures.

 Motivation and ideas are behind change.  Ideas, values and beliefs have the power to bring about transformations.  Individuals have the ability to act freely and shape the future.  Structures do not exist external to or independent of individuals (compare to Marx and Durkheim).  Structures in society are formed by a complex interplay of actions. It is sociology’s job to understand the meanings behind those actions.

 Ideal type: conceptual or analytical models that can be used to understand the world.  Do not exist in real world, hypothetical constructions  Serve as fixed points of reference for comparison  Does not mean that the conception is a perfect or desirable goal.  A ‘pure’ form of a certain phenomenon  Weber used ideal types in his writings on forms of bureaucracy and economic markets.

 Shifts in patterns of social action associated with the emergence of modern society.  Moving away from traditional beliefs grounded in superstition, religion, custom and habit.  Instead, engaging in rational, instrumental calculations that take into account efficiency and future consequences of action.

 Rationalization: Organization of social and economic life according to the principles of efficiency and on the basis of technical knowledge.  Weber defined the development of science, moden technology and bureaucracy collectively as rationalization.  Modern society was marked by rationalization of more and more areas of life (religion, politics, economic activity).

 Industrial Revolution and rise of capitalism as evidence of larger trend towards rationalization.  Capitalism is not dominated by class conflict (as opposed to Marx), but by the rise of science and bureaucracy (large-scale organizations and state).  Incapable of dealing with individual particularities.  Weber argued that the bureaucratization of the modern world has led to its depersonalization.

 Bureaucracy, which is the only way of organizing large numbers of people effectively, expands with economic and political growth.  Further bureaucratization and rationalization seemed to Weber an almost inescapable fate.  Disenchantment: the way in which scientific thinking in the modern world had swept away the forces of sentimentality from the past.

[The calculability of decision-making] and with it its appropriateness for capitalism.. [is] the more fully realized the more bureaucracy "depersonalizes" itself, i.e., the more completely it succeeds in achieving the exclusion of love, hatred, and every purely personal, especially irrational and incalculable, feeling from the execution of official tasks. In the place of the old-type ruler who is moved by sympathy, favor, grace, and gratitude, modern culture requires for its sustaining external apparatus the emotionally detached, and hence rigorously "professional" expert.

 Not optimistic about the outcome of rationalization.  What will come out of it?  The spread of modern bureaucracy to all areas of life would imprison us in an “iron cage”.

Imagine the consequences of that comprehensive bureaucratization and rationalization which already today we see approaching. Already now... in all economic enterprises run on modern lines, rational calculation is manifest at every stage. By it, the performance of each individual worker is mathematically measured, each man becomes a little cog in the machine and, aware of this, his one preoccupation is whether he can become a bigger cog.... It is apparent today we are proceeding towards an evolution which resembles [the ancient kingdom of Egypt] in every detail, except that it is built on other foundations, on technically more perfect, more rationalized, and therefore much more mechanized foundations. The problem which besets us now in not: how can this evolution be changed?--for that is impossible, but: what will come of it?

 Weber’s inescapable rationalization and bureaucratization vs. Marx’s alienation  Methods of organization increased efficiency and allowed domination of human beings over nature  Rationalized efficiency turned into a monster that threatens to dehumanize its creators  Marx  Alienation as a transitional stage to true emancipation  Weber  Does not believe in the possibility of a future world of freedom. Even if a charismatic leader would arise, he saw the iron cage more likely.

 Why did capitalism develop in the West and nowhere else?  Why not China, India or the Ottoman Empire?  What separates modern industry from earlier types of economic activity?  Religious values (particularly Puritanism) were of fundemantal importance in creating a capitalist outlook.

 Certain aspects of Christian beliefs influenced the rise of capitalism (comparative study of religious systems in China, India and Near East).  Weber argued that capitalist outlook of Western societies did not emerge from solely economic changes (compare with Marx).  Cultural ideas and values help shape society and our individual actions.

 What is peculiar to the West?  An attitude towards the accumulation of wealth found nowhere else in history.  Remember the example of the Ottoman Empire, Islamic inheritance law hinderin accumulation of wealth (Timur Kuran).  Weber called it “the spirit of capitalism” (a set of beliefs and values held by the first capitalist merchants and industrialists).

 A strong drive to accumulate wealth, yet unlike the wealthy elsewhere no desire to spend it on luxurious lifestyles!  Instead, their way of life was frugal, they lived soberly,shunning manifestations of affluence.  This unusual combination of characteristics, Weber argued, was vital to early Western economic development.

 Attitudes involved in the spirit of capitalism derived from religion.  Christianity – Protestantism – Puritanism/Calvinism  Certain Calvinistic doctrines were the direct source of the spirit of capitalism.

 Human beings are God’s instruments on earth, required to work in a vocation (an occupation for the greater glory of God).  Beruft -- calling  Predestination: Only certain predestined individuals are among the “elect” (chosen to enter heaven in the afterlife).  Certain signs of election

 Success in working in a vocation, indicated by material prosperity was the main sign of being elect.  Puritans believed luxury to be evil, they needed to live a modest life  the drive to accumulaye wealth became joined to a severe and unadorned lifestyle.  The ascetic (self-denying) lifestyle of Puritans became intrinsic part of modern civilization.

 Spirit of capitalism can be discerned in Italian merchant cities in the 12th century, long before Calvinism.  Working in a vocation not peculiar to Protestantism but also found in Catholicism.  Yet Weber’s accounts are still accepted by many as bold and illuminating.

 If Weber’s thesis is valid  Modern economic and social development was influenced by something that seems utterly distant from it – a set of religious ideals.  Counterintuitive  an interpretation that breaks with what commonsense would suggest.  Solves the puzzle (wealth and frugal life)  Capable of illuminating other circumstances (parallel values might be involved in other examples of capitalist development).