Learning 7-9% of the AP Psychology exam

Thursday, December 3 Sit with your group from yesterday’s test review!

Learning  Learning- a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience  Behaviorism- focuses only on observable learning or behaviors  Learning- a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience  Behaviorism- focuses only on observable learning or behaviors

3 Types of Learning  Associative Learning- making connections between events  Classical conditioning (Pavlov, Watson)  Operant conditioning (Skinner)  Cognitive learning  Observational learning- learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates another’s behavior (Bandura)  Associative Learning- making connections between events  Classical conditioning (Pavlov, Watson)  Operant conditioning (Skinner)  Cognitive learning  Observational learning- learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates another’s behavior (Bandura)

Classical Conditioning  A type of learning where one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Key People

Key Processes and Characteristics  Timing: the CS must directly proceed the UCS and alert the organism that the UCS will occur soon  Responses are involuntary!  Timing: the CS must directly proceed the UCS and alert the organism that the UCS will occur soon  Responses are involuntary!

Acquisition  The initial learning of the connection between the CS and the UCS; the CS is repeatedly presented followed by the UCS  Example:  The initial learning of the connection between the CS and the UCS; the CS is repeatedly presented followed by the UCS  Example:

Generalization  The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original CS to elicit a response similar to the CR  Example:  The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original CS to elicit a response similar to the CR  Example:

Discrimination  Learning to respond to the certain stimuli and not others  Example:  Learning to respond to the certain stimuli and not others  Example:

Extinction  The weakening of the CR when the UCS is absent  Example:  The weakening of the CR when the UCS is absent  Example:

Spontaneous Recovery  The process by which the CR can recur after a time delay without further conditioning  Example:  The process by which the CR can recur after a time delay without further conditioning  Example:

Classical Conditioning in Humans  Fear Learning- Watson and Baby Albert  Counterconditioning/Aversive Conditioning- pairing a stimulus with an unpleasant stimulus to change its association  Treating alcoholism with a medication that induces nausea  Fear Learning- Watson and Baby Albert  Counterconditioning/Aversive Conditioning- pairing a stimulus with an unpleasant stimulus to change its association  Treating alcoholism with a medication that induces nausea

Classical Conditioning in Humans  Placebo Effect  Association of “getting better” with taking a pill  The actually conditioning occurs with the immune response inside the body  Placebo Effect  Association of “getting better” with taking a pill  The actually conditioning occurs with the immune response inside the body

Classical Conditioning in Humans  Placebo Effect  Usually only requires one paring to form a strong association  Adaptive/evolutionary significance  Placebo Effect  Usually only requires one paring to form a strong association  Adaptive/evolutionary significance

Classical Conditioning in Humans  Drug Habituation  Habituation: decreased response to a stimulus after repeated presentations  Drug Habituation  Habituation: decreased response to a stimulus after repeated presentations

Habituation

OPERANT CONDITIONING  Key People: B.F. Skinner (rats) and Thorndike (Law of Effect- Cats)

B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

Thorndike’s Law of Effect  Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened; behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened

Operant Conditioning, Reinforcement, Punishment

Types of Reinforcers PRIMARY  Innately satisfying  Food, water, sexual satisfaction SECONDARY  Acquires value through conditioning  A’s, a paycheck, recognition

Continuous Reinforcers CONTINUOUS  Reward is given after every time a behavior occurs  Organism learns rapidly  Extinction takes place quickly PARTIAL  Reward follows the behavior only a portion of the time  Organism’s learning occurs more slowly  Extinction is rare or slower to occur

Schedules of Reinforcement  Ratio Schedules- involve the number of behaviors that must be performed prior to a reward  Interval Schedules- involve the amount of time that must pass before a behavior is rewarded  Fixed Schedule- the number (of behavior) or amount (of time) is always the same; predictable  Variable Schedule- the number (of behaviors) or amount (of time) change; unpredictable  Ratio Schedules- involve the number of behaviors that must be performed prior to a reward  Interval Schedules- involve the amount of time that must pass before a behavior is rewarded  Fixed Schedule- the number (of behavior) or amount (of time) is always the same; predictable  Variable Schedule- the number (of behaviors) or amount (of time) change; unpredictable

Types of Reinforcement Schedules  Fixed-ratio  Fixed-Interval  Variable-Ratio  Variable- Interval  Fixed-ratio  Fixed-Interval  Variable-Ratio  Variable- Interval

Key Processes and Characteristics  Timing- reinforcement or punishment should immediately follow the behavior to be most effective  Shaping- rewarding approximations to a desired behavior; training progress toward a goal  Timing- reinforcement or punishment should immediately follow the behavior to be most effective  Shaping- rewarding approximations to a desired behavior; training progress toward a goal

Key Processes and Timing  Responses are VOLUNTARY!  Generalization- performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation  Discrimination- responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced  Extinction- a behavior decreases in frequency because it is no longer reinforced  Responses are VOLUNTARY!  Generalization- performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation  Discrimination- responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced  Extinction- a behavior decreases in frequency because it is no longer reinforced

Cognition’s Influence on Operant Conditioning  Cognitive Maps  Latent Learning  Insight  Intrinsic motivation  Extrinsic motivation  Cognitive Maps  Latent Learning  Insight  Intrinsic motivation  Extrinsic motivation

Problems with Operant Conditioning  Avoidance Learning  Occurs when an organism learns that by making a particular response, it can avoid negative stimuli all together  Behaviors are maintained even when aversive stimuli are absent  Example: avoidant personality disorder  Avoidance Learning  Occurs when an organism learns that by making a particular response, it can avoid negative stimuli all together  Behaviors are maintained even when aversive stimuli are absent  Example: avoidant personality disorder

Problems with Operant Conditioning  Learned Helplessness  Occurs when an organism learns through experience that it has no control over negative stimuli  The organism perceives a lack of control  Example: depression due to traumatic life events  Learned Helplessness  Occurs when an organism learns through experience that it has no control over negative stimuli  The organism perceives a lack of control  Example: depression due to traumatic life events

Observational Learning  Observational Learning- learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates the behaviors of others  Also called imitation learning or modeling  Key People: Bandura (Bobo doll and aggression)  Observational Learning- learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates the behaviors of others  Also called imitation learning or modeling  Key People: Bandura (Bobo doll and aggression)

Bandura’s Model of Learning OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING ATTENTION Warm, powerful, unique people command more attention RETENTION Encoding and keeping information in memory MOTOR REPRODUCTION Attempting the behavior REINFORCEMENT Involves vicarious reinforcement or punishment

Cognitive Factors in Observational Learning

Latent Learning  Information is often stored even without physical expression of the behaviors

Insight Learning  A form of problem solving in which an organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem’s solution  Seemingly requires no trial and error  A form of problem solving in which an organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem’s solution  Seemingly requires no trial and error

Insight Learning

Biological Constraints  Instinctive Drift- resorting to a primitive response that interferes with learning  Preparedness- species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others  Both due to strong evolutionary associations  Instinctive Drift- resorting to a primitive response that interferes with learning  Preparedness- species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others  Both due to strong evolutionary associations