Chapter 7 Human Health and Environmental Toxicology

Overview of Chapter 7 o Human Health Health issues in developed countries Health issues in developed countries Health issues in developing countries Health issues in developing countries o Environmental Pollution and Disease Environmental Contaminants Environmental Contaminants Endocrine Disrupters Endocrine Disrupters o Determining Health Effects of Pollutants o Ecotoxicology o Risk Assessment

Human Health o Two indicators of human health in a given country are: Life expectancy- how long people are expected to live Life expectancy- how long people are expected to live Infant mortality- how many children die before age of 1 year Infant mortality- how many children die before age of 1 year o Vary greatly between countries Developed countries Developed countries Developing countries Developing countries

Health Issues in Highly Developed Countries o By many measures- health is good in these countries Great sanitation Great sanitation Few childhood diseases Few childhood diseases o Average life expectancy Men = 75 years Men = 75 years Women = 80 years Women = 80 years o Leading causes of death in US: Cardiovascular disease Cardiovascular disease Cancer Cancer Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (of the lungs) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (of the lungs)

Health Issue in Highly Developed Countries o Premature deaths caused by individual lifestyle decisions Poor diet Poor diet Lack of exercise Lack of exercise Smoking Smoking o Obesity is big problem Body Mass Index (BMI) Body Mass Index (BMI) (Weight X 740)/ (height (in)) 2 (Weight X 740)/ (height (in)) 2 If your BMI is less than 18.5, you are underweight If your BMI is less than 18.5, you are underweight If your BMI is , you are at a healthy weight If your BMI is , you are at a healthy weight If your BMI is 25-29, you are overweight If your BMI is 25-29, you are overweight A BMI of greater than 30 is obese A BMI of greater than 30 is obese

Health Issues in Developing Countries o Biggest problems Malnutrition, unsafe water, poor sanitation Malnutrition, unsafe water, poor sanitation o Life Expectancy Overall is 65 years Overall is 65 years Very poorest developing countries = 45 years Very poorest developing countries = 45 years Most of these countries have high AIDS epidemics Most of these countries have high AIDS epidemics o Childhood mortality is high (18% of deaths) Diarrheal diseases Diarrheal diseases Malnutrition Malnutrition Malaria Malaria AIDS/HIV AIDS/HIV

Emerging and Reemerging Diseases o Emerging Disease - not previously observed in humans Usually jumps from animal host Usually jumps from animal host Ex: AIDS, lyme disease, West Nile Virus, SWINE FLU!!!!! Ex: AIDS, lyme disease, West Nile Virus, SWINE FLU!!!!! o Reemerging Disease- existed in the past and are recently increasing in incidence Ex: tuberculosis, yellow fever, malaria Ex: tuberculosis, yellow fever, malaria

Reasons for Emergence/Reemergence o Evolution of disease so it can move to human host o Evolution of antibiotic resistance in disease o Urbanization and overcrowding o Increased pop. of elderly- susceptible to disease o Pollution and environmental degradation o Growth in international travel and commerce o Poverty and social inequality

Environmental Pollution and Disease o Often difficult to link pollutants to their effects on people o Three ways to analyze toxic effects of pollutants: 1. Persistence 2. Bioaccumulation 3. Biomagnification

1. Persistence o A characteristic of certain chemicals that are extremely stable and may take many years to be broken down into simpler forms by natural processes Synthetic chemicals (those not found in nature) Synthetic chemicals (those not found in nature) Ex: DDT Ex: DDT o Natural decomposers (bacteria) have not evolved a way to break it down

Bioaccumulation o The buildup of a persistent toxic substance in an organism’s body, often in fatty tissues Synthetic chemical do not metabolize well Synthetic chemical do not metabolize well They remain in the body for extended periods of time They remain in the body for extended periods of time

Biomagnification o The increased concentration of toxic chemicals in the tissues of organisms that are at higher levels in food webs o Diagram is example of biomagnification of DDT

Endocrine Disrupters o A chemical that mimics or interferes with the actions of the endocrine system in humans and wildlife i.e. It effects the ability of the hormones in the organisms to function properly i.e. It effects the ability of the hormones in the organisms to function properly o Examples include: PCBs, Dioxins PCBs, Dioxins Heavy metals – lead and mercury Heavy metals – lead and mercury DDT DDT o Animals exposed to these chemicals have altered reproductive development and are often sterile

Endocrine Disrupters o Case Study: 1980 chemical spill into Lake Apopka, FL Male alligators began to exhibit low testosterone levels and high estrogen levels Male alligators began to exhibit low testosterone levels and high estrogen levels

Endocrine Disrupters and Humans o Infertility and hormonally related cancers are increasing Breast cancer and testicular cancer Breast cancer and testicular cancer o Phthalates have been implicated as potential endocrine disrupters Common ingredient in: cosmetics, fragrances, nail polish, medication, toys, food packaging Common ingredient in: cosmetics, fragrances, nail polish, medication, toys, food packaging o Cannot make a link between endocrine disrupters and human illness Too few studies have been performed Too few studies have been performed

Determining Health Effects of Pollutants o Toxicology is the study of the effect of toxicants on the human body Toxicant- chemical with adverse human health effects Toxicant- chemical with adverse human health effects o Acute toxicity Adverse effects occur within a short period after exposure to toxin Adverse effects occur within a short period after exposure to toxin o Chronic toxicity Adverse effects occur some time after exposure, or after prolonged exposure to toxin Adverse effects occur some time after exposure, or after prolonged exposure to toxin Symptoms often mimic other diseases- hard to assess source Symptoms often mimic other diseases- hard to assess source

Toxicity o Toxicity measured by dose and response Dose: amount that enters the body of an exposed organism Dose: amount that enters the body of an exposed organism Response: the amount of damage caused by a specific dose Response: the amount of damage caused by a specific dose o Dose – Response Curve Typically the dose is plotted against the percentage of the population of test organisms showing the response…on logarithmic graph paper Typically the dose is plotted against the percentage of the population of test organisms showing the response…on logarithmic graph paper

Toxicity o Dose-Response Curve Illustrates the effect of different doses on a population Illustrates the effect of different doses on a population Threshold Level Threshold Level Maximum dose with no measurable effects Maximum dose with no measurable effects Threshold Level

Toxicity: Dose-Response Curves o ED 50 = Effective Dose The dose that causes 50% of the population to exhibit whatever effect is under study (effective dose) The dose that causes 50% of the population to exhibit whatever effect is under study (effective dose) o LD 50 = Lethal Dose The dose that is lethal to 50% of the test organisms The dose that is lethal to 50% of the test organisms Smaller the LD 50, the more lethal the chemical Smaller the LD 50, the more lethal the chemical Determined for all new synthetic chemicals Determined for all new synthetic chemicals

ED 50

o This dose-response curve demonstrates two assumptions of classical toxicology. The biological response increases as the dose is increased The biological response increases as the dose is increased There is a “safe” dose below which there is no response (the threshold level) There is a “safe” dose below which there is no response (the threshold level)

Results of Toxicology Testing o Dose response curves for 2 hypothetical toxicants, A and B o Toxicant A has a lower Effective Dose than toxicant B o Toxicant B, however, is MORE toxic at lower doses!

Results of Toxicology Testing o Hormesis = occurs when a toxin is healthy at low doses (necessary) but harmful at high doses (cadmium, vitamin D, etc) o Aka the “hormetic effect”!

Children and Chemical Exposure o Children more susceptible to chemicals Weigh less than adults Weigh less than adults Bodies are still developing Bodies are still developing Play on floors and lawns Play on floors and lawns Exposed to cleaning products and pesticides Exposed to cleaning products and pesticides Put things into their mouths Put things into their mouths o Diagram Children in foothills not exposed to pesticides Children in foothills not exposed to pesticides Children in valley were exposed Children in valley were exposed

Identifying Cancer Causing Substances (Carcinogens) o Toxicologists Dose rats with varying levels of chemicals to see if they develop cancer Dose rats with varying levels of chemicals to see if they develop cancer Difficult to extrapolate results to humans Difficult to extrapolate results to humans Both mammals, but very different body size, metabolic rates, diet, etc. Humans may respond the same as rats, or very differently for a given toxin! Both mammals, but very different body size, metabolic rates, diet, etc. Humans may respond the same as rats, or very differently for a given toxin! Doses given to animals are usually much larger than the typical doses humans are exposed to! Doses given to animals are usually much larger than the typical doses humans are exposed to! Lab animals only live about 2 years…humans 75-80! Lab animals only live about 2 years…humans 75-80! Human exposure is much more sporadic…and involves multiple chemicals and exposure pathways Human exposure is much more sporadic…and involves multiple chemicals and exposure pathways

Toxicology vs. Epidemiology… o Epidemiologists Look at historical exposure of groups of humans Look at historical exposure of groups of humans See if exposed group have increased cancer rate See if exposed group have increased cancer rate Make generalizations about risk based upon likelihood of exposure and effects. Make generalizations about risk based upon likelihood of exposure and effects. o A very uncertain science!

Chemical Mixtures o Most studies look at one chemical, but humans tend to be exposed to chemical mixtures Ex: automobile exhaust Ex: automobile exhaust o Chemical Mixtures interact by Additivity = exactly what one would expect, the combined effect of two toxins is the sum of the two toxins Additivity = exactly what one would expect, the combined effect of two toxins is the sum of the two toxins Synergy = when the effect of two toxins has a greater combined effect than the sum of the two individual toxins Synergy = when the effect of two toxins has a greater combined effect than the sum of the two individual toxins Antagonism = when the combined effect of two toxins is less than the sum of the two individual toxins Antagonism = when the combined effect of two toxins is less than the sum of the two individual toxins o Toxicity studies are expensive and take a while to complete

Chemical Testing

Ecotoxicology o Dilution Paradigm is not valid “Dilution is the solution to pollution” “Dilution is the solution to pollution” o Boomerang Paradigm is accepted “What you throw away can come back and hurt you” “What you throw away can come back and hurt you” o Ecotoxicology The study of contaminants in the biosphere and their harmful effects on ecosystems The study of contaminants in the biosphere and their harmful effects on ecosystems Helps policy makers determine costs and benefits of industrial and technological “advances” Helps policy makers determine costs and benefits of industrial and technological “advances” And how they often adversely effect ecosystems And how they often adversely effect ecosystems

Case Study: The Ocean o Land based nutrient and pollution runoff into ocean is affecting microorganisms o Ex: Red Tide Red pigmented poisonous algal blooms Red pigmented poisonous algal blooms Toxins kill off fish and make humans sick Toxins kill off fish and make humans sick

Red Tides…. (Diatoms) o Algal bloom = a sudden increase in the diatom population in shallow coastal waters “Brown tides” on Long Island were a sudden diatom bloom that occurred in the 1980’s…and devastated the scallop industry….no known cause for this! “Brown tides” on Long Island were a sudden diatom bloom that occurred in the 1980’s…and devastated the scallop industry….no known cause for this! o Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB’s) are now monitored by NOAA HAB’s

Harmful Algal Blooms Bulletin… o See a HAB bulletin from January 2008 for NE Florida See a HAB bulletin from January 2008 for NE Florida See a HAB bulletin from January 2008 for NE Florida

Gulf of Mexico “The Dead Zone”…

Can you tell the difference?

The Dead Zone The dead zone is a large area of the Gulf of Mexico, where the Mississippi River drains and deposits sediment into the delta Hypoxia = an oxygen-free condition; this is why the area is “dead” –this occurs in the Gulf of Mexico due to excess nutrient loading from the Mississippi River watershed

D.O. contours show the extent…

Hypoxia: Every summer, this environmental phenomenon occurs off the coast of Louisiana, covering over 7,000 square miles of the Gulf of Mexico at times. The Gulf of Mexico "Dead Zone", or hypoxic zone, is an expanse of oxygen-depleted waters that cannot sustain most marine life. This hypoxic zone is caused by excessive amounts of nitrogen pollution delivered to the Gulf by the Mississippi River, and the subsequent eutrophication process (dead algae eaten by bacteria)

The Dead Zone…. The Dead Zone has become a serious threat to commercial fishing, shrimping and recreation industries. The livelihoods of many thousands of people and their communities are at risk, as is the large marine ecosystem on which they depend. The vast size of the Dead Zone and the severity of its impact are largely a consequence of human activity — such as river course and landscape alterations, industry, municipal waste treatment and agriculture — throughout the Mississippi River Basin.

The Dead Zone…. Human activity has resulted in enormous increases in the amount of dissolved inorganic nitrogen delivered to the Gulf by the Mississippi River. Current estimates suggest that three times as much nitrogen is being carried into the Gulf today compared with levels 30 years ago or at any previous time on record.

Life in the Dead Zone During the summer months of low oxygen, while fish and other mobile animals can escape the developing Dead Zone, bottom dwellers that are attached to the ocean floor are doomed as the normal bottom ecosystem collapses. Significantly, when the autumn mixing brings oxygen levels back to normal, the bottom communities do not have the chance to revive. Instead, the area tends to be re-colonized by only a few short-lived species (such as polychaete worms) that can establish themselves in the aftermath of the Dead Zone.

Life in the Dead Zone Larger, longer-lived species (such as gastropods, bivalves, starfish, brittle stars and sea anemones) vanished from this part of the Gulf years ago. These new bottom communities fall far short of the normal ecosystems in diversity, abundance or biomass. Ken Teague of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency says “In the Dead Zone, the original bottom communities were lost a long time ago.”

Risk Assessment o Risk- probability that a particular adverse effect will result from some exposure or condition o Risk Assessment = the use of statistical methods to quantify the risks of a particular action so they can be compared or contrasted with other risks o We assess risk daily with four steps 1. Hazard identification 2. Dose response assessment 3. Exposure assessment 4. Risk characterization

Risk Assessment

Using Risk Assessment o Risk assessment is used in several ways for environmental regulation Government may establish a “maximum risk” (one in one million chance, for example) standard for a toxin, or a “Maximum Contaminant Level” (actual dosage) that people should not be exposed to Government may establish a “maximum risk” (one in one million chance, for example) standard for a toxin, or a “Maximum Contaminant Level” (actual dosage) that people should not be exposed to MCL is what is “feasible” considering cost and available technology MCL is what is “feasible” considering cost and available technology MCLG is the dosage “goal” that the EPA is striving for to protect health better MCLG is the dosage “goal” that the EPA is striving for to protect health better Example: TCE (Tri-chloro-ethylene) has an MCL of mg/L and a MCLG of mg/L Example: TCE (Tri-chloro-ethylene) has an MCL of mg/L and a MCLG of mg/L NOTE: mg/L is the same as ppm NOTE: mg/L is the same as ppm

Ecological Risk Assessment o Difficult to assess because effects occur at wide range of scales Individual plants and animals Individual plants and animals Ecological communities over wide regions Ecological communities over wide regions o Human-induced environmental stressors also range greatly Good to bad Good to bad Acceptable to unacceptable Acceptable to unacceptable o There is a need to quantify risks to the environment

Case Study on Ecological Risk Assessment Results in decrease in fish, algal blooms Results in decrease in fish, algal blooms o Ecol. Risk Assessment Used to help government and locals set priorities to manage and protect ecosystem Used to help government and locals set priorities to manage and protect ecosystem o Snake River Ecosystem in Southern Idaho River provides hydroelectric power and water for irrigation River provides hydroelectric power and water for irrigation Human use causes reduced flow, elevated water temperature and nutrient enrichment Human use causes reduced flow, elevated water temperature and nutrient enrichment

Addressing Environmental Problems o Case in Point: Lake Washington Scientific assessment (U. of Washington) Public education and involvement Political action (Washington Pollution Control Commission)

Addressing Environmental Problems o Case in Point: Lake Washington Evaluation

Addressing Environmental Problems o Case in Point: Lake Washington Evaluation

Precautionary Principle! o “An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure”… o When a new technology or chemical product is suspected of threatening health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken, even if there is uncertainty about the scope of danger. o Puts the burden of proof on the developers of the new technology or substance o Critics of this principle often cite the extensive cost of “proving” safety of a substance/technology, and a negative economic impact.