ACM 4063 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH Lecture 7

Content analysis (CA)  A research technique for making references by systematically and objectively identifying specified characteristics within a text  A method for studying mass mediated and public messages  The main goal of CA is to describe the characteristics of messages embedded in public and mediated text

 Any systematic procedure devised to examine the content of recorded information (Walizer and Wienir (1978)  A research technique for making replicable and valid references from data to their context (Krippendorf, 1980)  A method of studying and analyzing communication in a systematic, objective and quantitative manner for a purpose of measuring variables (Kerlinger, (1986)

 Sometimes regarded as true communication research as it involves directly with media, media contents and messages – texts, photos, pictures, scenes, advertisements, etc.  CA involves studying information or materials already existed, not bounded by structured questionnaire, and can handle massive data with the help of computers

Advantages of CA  It can be unobtrusive – no interaction of invasion of privacy  It can deal with large volumes of material – many years of records, newspapers TV programs, etc  It is systematic – structured procedures and inline with the requirement of scientific method  It can corroborate with other evaluation methods – to value add or support the other research findings

Limitations of CA  The materials must be complete  Need coders to be trained  CA alone cannot serve as a basis for making statements about the effects on the content on an audience  The findings are limited to the framework of the categories and definitions used in the analysis  Lack of messages to be studied relevant to research  Frequently time consuming and expensive

Steps in CA: - formulate the research question - define the population in question - select an appropriate sample from population - select and define unit of analysis - construct the categories of content to be analyzed - establish a quantification system (coding form/sheet) - train coders and conduct pilot study - code the content according to established definition - analyze the collected data - draw conclusions and search for indications

Formulate the research question  Based on existing theory, from review of literature or practical problems faced by the public  What is the objective? Normally to summarize or describe the content of written materials, the attitudes or perception of its writer, or its potential effects on its audience  Good research question would provide clear guide on conducting CA

Define the population in question  What is the main source of data or media that is going to be studied?  Data availability? Any recorded materials as long as the information is available to be reanalyzed for reliability checks- assess quality  For example newspapers or magazines for how many years? TV programs for how many seasons? Chat interaction for how many days?

Select an appropriate sample  It is impossible to study the daily newspapers for ten years or watch every TV programs for several years, thus sampling is conducted  To do sampling the population must be complete  If it is an event, for example General Election, your may decides the time before the election and after the election to study the news coverage – purposive sampling  If it is for a long time, then composite week for each month in the sample (Monday from one month, Tuesday from another month, etc until all 7 days are completed)

 As other sampling methods, the sample must be representative  There must be adequate sample size to be credible  For composite or constructed week it is possible to do probability sampling  For newspaper, it is possible to study specific part of the paper, e.g. front page only, editorial column, letter to the editor, etc  For TV, it is possible to study during prime time only

Select and define unit of analysis  The smallest element of CA and the most important  In written content, the unit of analysis might be: - a single word - a sentence - a paragraph - an entire article or story - a symbol - a theme

 In TV, video and film, the unit of analysis can be: - character - act - scene - time (seconds) - the entire program or film  Specific rules and definitions are required for determining the unit of analysis to ensure closer agreement between coders

Construct the categories of CA  At the heart of CA is the category system used to classify media content  This is to provide structure for grouping recording unit and help in systematic analysis  There is standard requirements that categories should meet  Each category must be clearly explained so that the coders can do the work smoothly

 Requirement for content categories: - categories should be exhaustive - categories should be mutually exclusive - categories should be independent - categories can be constructed through groupings, scales and matrices  The number of categories depends on the research questions and the research objectives

 Categories can be used to measure three quantification levels – space, frequency and intensity  These methods allow researcher to compare relative strength of the respective issues and get indication of its value or importance

Establish a quantification system  Normally nominal, interval and ration level of measurement are used  At nominal level count the frequency of occurrence of the unit of analysis  At the interval level it is possible to develop scales for coders to use to rate certain attributes  At the ratio level, measurement in mass media research are generally applied to space (print media) and time (electronic media)

 In print media, column-inch measurement are commonly used to analyze news, editorials, advertisements  In TV and radio, the number of commercial minutes, the time and types of programs etc  It is also taken into consideration where the news are printed (front page or inside), when the story is aired (prime time, or lead news) as part of the ‘meaning’ in CA

 Scales provide for the rank ordering of information such as “support, uncommitted, oppose”  Matrices are useful formats when researcher seeks more information about issues than simply whether they are present or absent

Train coders and conduct pilot study  As the categories developed are specific to the CA, training must be given to coders  Coders must achieve an acceptable level of agreement called ‘inter-coder reliability’ before the actual data collection can be carried out.  The coders must understand and familiar with unit of analysis and the content categories developed  The coders must undergo pilot study to familiarized themselves with what they are supposed to do

 Pre-testing must be conducted before actual data collection  Involves coding a small portion of the material to be analyzed or some other similar materials  Test and revise the coding categories and instructions  The outcomes of pre-test should make the categories clearly specified, coding instructions are adequate, and coders are suitable for the job

 Inter-coder reliability should be calculated during pre-testing and coding should begin when high inter-coder reliability is achieved (80 –90 % agreement is acceptable)  A check of reliability tells researchers the extend to which a measuring procedure can produce the same results in repeated trials  In CA, this means determining the similarity with which two or more people categorize the same material – independent coder

Code the content accordingly  The entire material for CA must be already available and in good quality  Coders are competence to conduct the CA  Coders know which news of part of TV programs to be taken as sample in the study or not  For written media, key words in the title, headline, or the first paragraph or photograph of the news became the basis for inclusion in the study or not  Commonly coding sheets are prepared for this

 Define the recording units including procedures for identifying them  Descriptions of the variables and categories  Outline the cognitive procedures used in placing data in categories  Instructions for using and administering data sheet or coding sheet

 The coders must count the total news available in the sample so that comparison can be made later  For TV, the presence of ‘variable’ or category in the unit analysis is recorded  Coders must record all scenes and count the scenes that content the element being studied  Coders may have to read the news or replay the recorded TV programs several times in conducting CA

Analyze the collected data  Use the data recorded in coding or data sheet  Summarize the coded data  Discovering patterns and relationships within the data  Describing the results  Relating the results to data obtained from other methods or situations or from assessing the validity of the analysis

 Use descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, proportions to present the results or findings, compare results across categories, and note changes over times  Use specific example from data to support your claim  The report should provide clear idea what was done, why it was done, and why the results provide a sound basis for conclusions and recommendations

Draw conclusions  Based on the outcome of the analysis  State the conclusion as it answers the research questions and research objectives  If there is unexpected results give plausible explanation  Describe what is the main outcome of the study  Give suggestions for further study or application by the relevant authority

 A CA reports should consist: - the study objectives, and justification of the choice of data, methods, and design - a description of the procedures including sampling, units of analysis, coding instructions, results of inter-coders reliability test, procedures for data handling and analysis, and efforts at validating the procedures, and - the findings and their significance contribution