ADRESS FORMS AND POLITENESS Second person- used when the subject of the verb in a sentence is the same as the individual to

whom the speaker is addressing him or herself. Brown and Gilman(1972, discussed in Fasold 1990) proposed that the evolution of pronominal address forms reflects sociocultural change over time

American English Address FN- first name, used among friends or acquaintances FN- first name, used among friends or acquaintances TLN- title plus last name, used to address those higher in rank or older TLN- title plus last name, used to address those higher in rank or older LN- last name, a less formal address used by superiors or coworkers to show either LN- last name, a less formal address used by superiors or coworkers to show either

TT- title plus title, used in very formal settings or with people of very high rank TT- title plus title, used in very formal settings or with people of very high rank SOCIOLINGUISTICS COMPETENCE (Ervin-Tripp) SOCIOLINGUISTICS COMPETENCE (Ervin-Tripp) =is basically one of sociolinguistic competence, which is the knowledge a speaker has of how to use the

language varieties in his or her linguistic repertoire, and involves the following components: 1. Social- these are the aspects of the social domain 2. Place- the physical location of the interaction

3. Context- the situational status, ranging from intimate to formal 4. Person- age/kin/generation/sex/marital status 5. Cognitive-whether the name of the addressee is known is a factor, as well as the familiarity the person has with the rules appropriate for a given social

Context 6. Cultural-the identity set of titles available varies from culture to culture (and of course from language to language)

Politeness and Pragmatics Pragmatics- the use of context to make inference about meaning of a linguistic structure Formality- do not impose; remain aloof Hesitancy- give the addressee his or her option Equality- treat the addressee as equal

Cooperative principle 1. Maxim of Quantity- Make your contribution no less and no more informative than required by the purposes of the conversational exchange 2. Maxim of Quality- Make your contribution truthful 3. Maxim of relevance- Make your

contribution relevant to the conversation 4.Maxim of Manner- Make your contribution perspicuous, by avoiding obscurity, ambiguity, prolixity and disorderliness Conversational implicature- The maxims allow for interpretation of an utterance

that goes beyond literal meaning Three expectations in conversational implicature that allow for interpretation once the speaker appears to have violated the maxim 1. The speaker expects to be seen as cooperative.

2. The hearer expects that the violating speaker is being cooperative 3. The speaker expects the hearer to assume cooperation and to interpret the violation on that basis.

Five characteristics of conversational implicature Everyone recognizes the cooperative principle Everyone recognizes the cooperative principle Literal comprehension of an utterance precedes the interpretation of the meaning Literal comprehension of an utterance precedes the interpretation of the meaning Implicatures vary depending on the assumptions of the speaker in question Implicatures vary depending on the assumptions of the speaker in question

Implicatures can be cancelled. Implicatures can be cancelled. Leechas Maxims: 1.tact- minimize cost and maximize benefit to other 2. generosity-minimize benefit and maximize cost to self 3. approbation-minimize criticism and maximize praise of other

4. modesty- minimize praise and maximize criticism of self Goals are related to avoiding loss of face. Numerous acts are face- threatening: Negative face- territoriality, freedom of action and freedom from imposition; A request impedes on another’s freedom

Positive face- positive self image, desire for approval; contraction by another calls into question one’s positive self image

Speech Act Is a technical term in linguistics and the philosophy of language Is a technical term in linguistics and the philosophy of language Refers to the act of successfully communicating an intended understanding to the listener Refers to the act of successfully communicating an intended understanding to the listener

Some typical Speech Acts Warning Warning Informing Informing Promising Promising Questioning Questioning Answering Answering Greeting Greeting Challenging Challenging

Classification illocutionary acts Assertives= speech acts that commit a speaker to the truth of the expressed propositon Assertives= speech acts that commit a speaker to the truth of the expressed propositon Directives= speech acts that are to cause the hearer to take a particular action Directives= speech acts that are to cause the hearer to take a particular action Commisives= speech acts that commit a speaker to some future action Commisives= speech acts that commit a speaker to some future action

Expressives= speech acts that expresses on the speaker’s attitudes and emotions towards the proposition Expressives= speech acts that expresses on the speaker’s attitudes and emotions towards the proposition Declarations=speech acts that change the reality in accord with the proposition of the declaration Declarations=speech acts that change the reality in accord with the proposition of the declaration

Analysis Using Searle’s Theory Step 1: Understand the facts of the conversation. Step 1: Understand the facts of the conversation. Step 2: Assume cooperation and relevance on behalf of the participants Step 2: Assume cooperation and relevance on behalf of the participants Step 3: Establish factual background information pertinent to the conversation. Step 3: Establish factual background information pertinent to the conversation.

Step 4: Make assumptions about the conversation based on steps 1-3 Step 4: Make assumptions about the conversation based on steps 1-3 Step 5: If steps 1-4 do not yield a consequential meaning, then infer that there are two illocutionary forces at work Step 5: If steps 1-4 do not yield a consequential meaning, then infer that there are two illocutionary forces at work Step 6: Assume the hearer has the ability to perform the act the speaker Step 6: Assume the hearer has the ability to perform the act the speaker

suggests. Step 7: Make inferences from 1-6 regarding possible primary illocutions. Step 8: Use background information to establish the primary illocution