Anomalistic Psychology Carmen Zhang

Who is more likely to have anomalous experiences and beliefs? Please explain.  Some research has found that believers have significantly lower levels of academic performance than sceptics (e.g. Gray, 1987), therefore Anna is more likely to be a believer as she demonstrated a lower intelligence. Research had also found that believers perform less well on tests of syllogistic reasoning.  However on the other hand, contradicting results are found. Evan (1973) found that even amongst the scientific community belief is high, for example when New scientist readers were questioned 67% said they regarded ESP either as an ‘established fact’ or a ‘likely possibility’. Wiseman and Watt(2006) also concluded from a general survey of research that believers and non-believers only differ in terms of syllogistic reasoning rather than cognitive ability generally.

What psychokinetic ability does Janice has? Give definition.  Micro-PK.

Describe one way in which researchers have studied micro- psychokinesis. (4marks)  A German physicist Helmut Schmidt introduced random number generators in the late 1960s to investigate micro- PK. The RNG or REG is an electronic device that produces unpredictable, random numbers. The view is that if an individual has psychic ability, he/she can influence the outcome of RNG to try and produce more of one number than another number. For example with an electronic coin flipper, the participants attempt to influence that fall of the coins and get more heads or more tails, whereas by chance alone it should be 50% of each.

What is Victoria demonstrating? Give definition.  Macro-PK

Discuss methodological issues in the study of psychokinesis. (4marks+6marks)  Lack of control..  Lack of ecological validity…  File-drawer effect…. Etc.

Give two visible methodological flaws shown in the picture.  Halved table-tennis balls are not taped and no earphones or headphones.

What does ESP stands for?  Extra-sensory perception

What are the different types of ESP?  Telepathy - the ability to acquire the thoughts from another person.  Clairvoyance - the ability to gain knowledge of events from a distant place.  Pre-cognition - the ability to see into the future.

Explain the use of Ganzfeld procedure to investigate telepathy. (6marks)  The Ganzfeld procedure is a technique that has been developed to test an individual’s ability to read the thoughts of another person. It aims to create a situation of sensory deprivation to suppress sensory input, so a subject is better able to used their ESP and receive telepathic messages. The ‘receiver’ is isolated in a red-lit room with halved table-tennis balls taped over their eyes and earphones playing white noises. The ‘sender’ in another room randomly chooses one of four images to send telepathically. Afterwards the receiver provides a verbal description to the experimenter who should be blind to the target and records what is said. The receiver is then presented with four images and selects the target image. If the receiver is able to read the thoughts of others, he/she should be able, over several trials, to get a hit rate greater than chance level. (25percent)

Explain what is meant by ‘superstition’. (2marks)  A superstition is a behaviour or a belief that is viewed as being irrational because it assumes that two events are related. For example, a person who wears a good luck charm believes that this was the reason why they got good exam results. Superstitions are viewed as irrational beliefs because they are not supported by scientific evidence nor based on reason and knowledge.

How might a psychologist explain Seyi’s superstitious behaviour?  A psychologist may apply the behaviourist view to explain Seyi’s behaviour. First, the superstition is acquired through operant conditioning. This means that Seyi may have accidentally discovered a link between wearing the lucky pink shirt and faster heart beats, which reinforced her superstitious behaviour. Second, Seyi’s superstitious behaviour is likely to have been maintained through positive reinforcement, where she believes her heart is beating faster because of the pink shirt, thus the superstitious belief is reinforced. Seyi will repeat wearing the pink shirt to get faster heartbeats!!  Another explanation is that it allows her to gain a sense of control. By carrying out superstitious acts such as wearing the pink shirt, it gives her a feeling of being control because she is attempting to ‘feel alive’ with faster heartbeats. (Whitson and Galinsky 2008)  +Type 1 and Type 2 errors

Suggest how personality factors might explain why Kelly does not have anomalous beliefs (4marks)  One suggestion is that Kelly may not have a belief in the paranormal because she doesn’t have a neurotic personality. Paranormal beliefs may act as a source of comfort to deal with such anxiety and negativity as shown by Ain who is neurotic. On the other hand, because Kelly may not be too anxious, she is therefore less likely to seek the paranormal as a means of comfort. Williams et al (2007) found a significant correlation of between neuroticism and paranormal beliefs, in their study of 300 school children.  Another suggestion is that believers tend to have an external locus of control. So it might be that Kelly has a greater sense of internal control, in other words she believed things happen because she is controlling them rather than being externally determined by a paranormal force. (Davies and Kirkby 1985)  +Fantasy-proneness  + Extraversion

Which topic of anomalistic psychology is this picture concern with?  Out-of-Body Experience

Explain what is meant by the term OOBE.  It can be defined as an experience in which a person seems to perceive the world from a location outside their physical body.

Give two explanations for OOBE.  Paranormal:  It suggests that something beyond our current understanding is happening. The only way to carry out OOBEs is by separating the mind or body.  Biological:  It suggests that OOBEs are related to sensory disturbance.  Study:  Blackmore (1982) suggests that normally we view the world as if we were behind our eyes. In situations where sensory input breaks down, the brain attempts to reconstruct what we are seeing using memory and imagination. Memory images re often bird’s eye view so the constructed image usually appears to be viewing oneself from above.

Outline and evaluate researches into OOBE.  Blackmore, Green, Alvarado, Blanke et al.

What personality type is Charlotte likely to be?  Fantasy proneness - psychic experience in some people is due to difficulty in separating reality from fantasy. They are so absorbed in a fantasy that it feels it is actually happening.

Outline one investigation on fantasy proneness.  Wiseman et al (2003) carried out a mock séance where participants knew it wasn’t real. During the séance an actor suggested that the table was levitating (it wasn’t) and after the séance more believers than non-believers claim to have seem the table move. This suggests that their deep absorption led them to believe despite knowing it was fake.

Give two researches into naturally-occurring NDEs and one research into artificially induced NDEs.  Ring, Nelson et al, Jansen

Explain what is meant by ‘psychic healing’.  Psychic healing is when a person claims that they can heal people with health problems by using their mind alone. Psychic healing can be carried out in close physical contact where the healer touches or passes their hands very close to the patient’s body. Psychic healing can also be carried out from a distance (e.g. such as praying for someone to get better).

What is Type 1 error and type 2 error?  Type 1 error = claiming an effect exists when it does not (sometimes it is better to be safe than sorry)  Type 2 error = claiming no effect exists when it does (there is no tiger lurking in the grass come on guys its fine to walk over there..)

What is selective reporting and file-drawer effect?  Selective reporting = only reporting significant findings, this gives a false impression that psi phenomena exist.  File drawer effect = non significant findings are hidden away and may not be included in meta- analyses