FIGURE Some map scale examples and sizes covered by USGS map sheets. Images from From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Some scale representations. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Calculating map scale using a known distance on a map or visualization. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Map scale can be determined by comparing the distance between two features on two maps, when the scale is known for one map. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Determining map scale using the distance between lines of latitude or longitude. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Simplified illustration of aggregation operation. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Simplified illustration of displacement operation. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Simplified illustration of enhancement operation. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Simplified illustration of selection operation. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Simplified illustration of simplification operation. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Areal aggregation of geographic units can lead to results that mask important geographical characteristics and relationships. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Examples of four widely used classifications for the same data. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Size and shape are key visual variables to distinguish quantity and quality in cartographic representation. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Ill­-advised use of symbols can lead to confusing maps. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE GIS digitization, viewing, and plotting equipment. Above, from From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Portion of the 1947–1951 USGS topographic map from Minneapolis, Minnesota. Maps such as these are printed using very high resolution printers. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Portion of the 1865 cadastre of Budow (now Budowo). Cadastre maps are some of the oldest types of maps known. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE Examples of choropleth maps of the same data using different class interval methods. From Cromley, E. K., & McLafferty, S. L. (2011). GIS and public health (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. p Reprinted by permission of Guilford Publications. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE A dot-density map of population density. From Cromley, E. K., & McLafferty, S. L. (2011). GIS and public health (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. p Reprinted by permission of Guilford Publications. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.