The Beginning of the Twentieth-Century Crisis: War and Revolution Chapter 25 The Beginning of the Twentieth-Century Crisis: War and Revolution

Map 25.1: Europe in 1914

The Road to World War I Before the outbreak of WWI, Europeans were optimistic about material progress Felt European society was moving towards an earthly utopia WWI kills millions of Europeans and brings an end to the period known as the age of progress Nationalism and Internal Dissent Nationalism Liberals claimed that creation of national states would bring peace Instead it was the most responsible for triggering WWI Led to competition instead of cooperation Brinkmanship Defended national honor Believed they had to support allies to preserve their own internal security

Internal dissent Ethnic tensions Irish in British Empire Slavic minorities in the Balkans & Austrian Empire Poles in the Russian empire Growing power of Socialist labor movements Increase is strikes alarmed conservative leaders

Possible Test Question Which of the following trends helped lead to the outbreak of the Great War? Conservative leaders hoped to crush internal democratic movement through war. European generals adopted new military policies European states felt they had to uphold the power of their allies for their own internal security The downward spiral of European economies The dismantling of Europe’s overseas empires

Influence of military leaders Militarism Conscription Armies doubled in size between 1890 - 1914 Influence of military leaders Developed complex military plans that took precedence over political plans

The Outbreak of War: The Summer of 1914 The effects of the Balkan Wars prior to 1914 Tension between Russia & Austria for control of Balkan states Nationalism pushed minority groups to seek independence Immediate cause of WWI was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand and wife Sophia, June 28, 1914 Germany gives “full support” to Austria Blank Check Austria declares war on Serbia on July 28, 1914 Russian mobilization Germans responded with an ultimatum Russians ignored it and Germany declared war on Russia

Possible Test Question Among nineteenth-century European political movements, the one most responsible for triggering World War I was Nationalism. Liberalism. Conservatism. Socialism. Modernism.

Schlieffen Plan Minimal troops against Russia Quick strike against France by moving through Belgium Germany declared war on France to carry out their plan Britain declares war on Germany for invading Belgium neutrality

The Schlieffen Plan

Possible Test Question The outbreak of the Great War was greatly accelerated by the Schlieffen Plan, which was Germany’s promise of full-fledged support for Austrian military actions against Serbia. The Black Hand’s plan for the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria. Germany’s military plan to invade France through neutral Belgium before attacking Russia. Russia’s mobilization plan against both Germany and Austria-Hungary. The German emperor’s last attempt to persuade Russia not to mobilize its armies.

The War 1914-1915: Illusions & Stalemate European attitudes toward the beginning of war Belief in a short, romantic war, that would provide a release from the dull and boring existence of mass society Started in Aug. 1914 – troops thought they would be home for Christmas Failure of the Schlieffen Plan Right flank was weakened to prevent Russian invasion in Eastern Germany British mobilized faster than expected Most important consequence - Western front bogs down into trench warfare First Battle of the Marne, September 6-10, 1914 Germans stopped.

Battle Scene in Northern France

Possible Test Question Most Europeans believed that the Great War would Be much like the American Civil War in length. Be an exciting, emotional release from the otherwise dull and boring existence of mass society. Last for years creating a rousing state of perpetual heroics as proclaimed by Nietzsche in his writings on “superman.” Ultimately bring about the unification of Europe in one centralized and highly militarized government. Result in a new balance of power throughout all of Western Civilization.

War in the East Fighting was characterized by more mobility than the trench warfare on the Western Front, but still resulted in high numbers of casualties. Russian Failures Battle of Tannenberg, August 30, 1914 Battle of Masurian Lakes, September 15, 1914 Austrian Failures Galicia and Serbia Germans come to Austria’s aid Defeat Serbia Inflict heavy casualties on Russia (2.5 million dead) Italy doesn’t honor prewar alliance – joins allies in 1915

The War 1916-1917: The Great Slaughter Trench warfare “No-man’s land” – area between trenches Political pressure for military results prompted Generals to throw massive amounts of men at defensive positions Daily life for the soldiers was characterized by long periods of boredom followed by artillery barrage and frontal assaults by troops Trench warfare became a senseless slaughter of troops incompetent officers continually ordered their troops to accomplish impossible battlefield objectives

“Softening up” the enemy (usual tactic) Artillery barrage before soldiers attack intended to destroy enemy barbed wire, make them hide in bunkers, psychologically shock them and make them vulnerable to attack Battle of Verdun, 1916, Germans lost 700,000 men in 10 months Battle of the Somme, 1916, British lost 60,000 men in one day. Heaviest one-day loss in World War I As the soldiers settled into trench warfare They became miserable in rat-infested trenches Dealt with trench foot Lost the romantic feel to the war Lost morale as they waited to die

Trench Warfare in France

Map 25. 2: The Western Front, 1914-1918

Map 25.3: The Eastern Front, 1914-1918

Possible Test Question The development of trench warfare in France was characterized by Quick advances and seizures of enemy trenches. Fewer casualties due to thick fortifications. Long periods of boredom broken by artillery barrages and frontal assaults by enemy troops. High morale and assurance of victory among the troops whose use of modern weapons reduced casualty rates. Fraternization between the opposing armies.

Possible Test Question As fought in World War I, trench warfare Became a senseless slaughter of troops on all sides with hundreds of thousands of men dying for battlefield gains of a few miles at best. Increased the morale of soldiers who fought well and came to obey promptly the orders of their superiors. Became increasingly unreal as baffled and incompetent officers persistently ordered their men to accomplish battlefield objectives that were impossible. Brought great innovations to military tactics as the long conflict forced generals to devise novel tactics. A and C.

The Widening of the War August 1914: Ottoman Empire enters the war Battle of Gallipoli, April 1915 May 1915: Italy enters the war against Austria-Hungary September 1915: Bulgaria enters the war on the side of the Central Powers Middle East Lawrence of Arabia (1888-1935) April 1917: Entry of the United States The United States tried to remain neutral Sinking of the Lusitania, May 7, 1915 Return to unrestricted submarine warfare January 1917 Germany gambles – starve Britain before the U.S. enters the war United States enters the war, April 6, 1917 Zimmerman Telegram and unrestricted submarine warfare U.S. provides fresh troops and morale for the surge of 1918

Possible Test Question The chief reason for the United States’ entry into World War I was The success of British propaganda. German violations of the principles of neutrality and freedom of the seas. The expulsion of the American consul from Berlin. Diplomatic chicanery on the part of the Austrians. The threat by Mexico to invade the southwestern United States.

A New Kind of Warfare Air Power Tanks 1915: first use of airplanes on the battle-front First for recon, then for combat German use of zeppelins Tanks 1916: first use of tanks on the battlefield by British Early tanks ineffective 1918: British Mark V first effective tank Tanks play a larger role in WWII

The Home Front: The Impact of Total War Increased Government Centralization and expansion of Government power Conscription draft, or mandatory military service Death rates from the war hit all social classes Highest death rates Junior officers from aristocracy who led charges across “no man’s land” Unskilled laborers and peasants who were infantry troops Effects on Economies European governments gradually took full control of all aspects of their economies Inflation from higher wages and scarcity of consumer goods Large industrialists benefited from the war due to wartime contracts for weapons and munitions

Possible Test Question Economically, World War I Saw European governments adopt a “hands off” policy toward their economies. Saw European governments all take control of only war-related industries. Witnessed European governments gradually take full control of all aspects of their economies. Did little to affect the domestic industries of European nations. Brought considerable prosperity to all of the belligerent nations.

Public Order and Public Opinion Dealing with unrest Use of military to break up strikes Police powers were expanded to include the arrest of all dissenters Loss of freedom of speech Liberals and Socialists opposed the war because of wide scale human slaughter, nationalism and militarism Defense of the Realm Act British arrested dissenters and traitors Propaganda to boost morale for the war effort Work or fight campaigns Music as propaganda Germans “The Watch on the Rhine” Americans “Over There” British “The Old Barbed Wire”

Social Impact of Total War Labor benefits – allowed unions, gained higher wages New roles for women Male concern over wages Women began to demand equal pay Gains for women After the war, women demand the right to vote

Possible Test Question As public morale and support for the war ebbed Workers’ strikes became less frequent as they were brutally repressed. The liberal French government under Clemenceau found it impossible to end internal dissent. Propaganda posters and weapons became less important. Police powers were expanded to include the arrest of all dissenters as traitors to the state. Politicians attempted to end the war short of total victory.

The Russian Revolution War and Discontent Nicholas II was an autocratic ruler Led the military Wife kept him isolated from the reality of domestic disturbances Russia not prepared for war Incompetent political leadership of Nicholas II Lack of guns and ammunition Over 2 million killed, 4-6 million wounded or captured Influence of Rasputin (the mad monk) Holy man who influenced Tsar Nicolas’s wife and eventually the Tsar’s decisions Series of military and economic disasters caused Russians to lose faith in the Tsar Conservative aristocracy assassinated Rasputin

March of the women, March 8, 1917 The March Revolution Problems in Petrograd Bread rationing March of the women, March 8, 1917 Women marched through the streets “Peace and Bread!” Calls for a general strike Soldiers join the marchers Provisional Government takes control Tried to carry on the war Soviets sprang up – councils of workers and soldiers

Bolsheviks under the leadership of Vladimir Ulianov, 1870-1924 Sent back to Russia in a sealed train by the Germans April Theses – Lenin’s version of a Russian socialist movement that skipped the bourgeois revolution Promised “Peace, land and bread” to the people

Possible Test Question V.I. Lenin Was a central figure in the establishment of a provisional government. Denounced the use of revolutionary violence in his “April Theses.” With strong middle-class support, led the formation of a new, democratic labor party. Remained in neutral Switzerland until the Armistice was signed. As a leader of the Bolsheviks, promised “land, peace, and bread.”

Map 25.4: The Russian Revolution

Russian Revolution (cont) The Bolshevik Revolution Bolsheviks control Petrograd and Moscow soviets Collapse of Provisional Government, November 6-7, 1917 Lenin ratifies redistribution of land and worker control of factories to gain the support of the masses Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 3, 1918 Russian and German treaty Civil War Bolshevik (Red) army and Anti-Bolshevik (White) army Murder of the Tsar and his family (July 16, 1918) Disunity among the white army Communists and “War communism” Military prevails due to ruthless discipline and the leadership of Leon Trotsky. War Communism ensures regular supplies for the Red Army Invasion of allied troops (support White army) 1921: Communists victory

Possible Test Question Following the Bolshevik seizure of power in November 1917 Lenin accelerated the war effort against Germany. Lenin returned the control of factories to their rightful owners. Lenin ratified the redistribution of land which had already been seized by peasants. Lenin successfully managed to reestablish the Duma under socialist control. Lenin confiscated all the agricultural land in Russia, forcing the peasants into large collective farms.

The Last Year of the War Last German offensive, March 21-July 18, 1918 Allied counterattack, Second Battle of the Marne, July 18, 1918 German attack is repelled Ends Germany’s final attempt to win the war General Ludendorff informs German leaders that the war is lost William II abdicates, November 9, 1918 Republic established Armistice, November 11, 1918 The Casualties of the War 8 to 9 million soldiers killed, 22 million wounded 1915 – Armenians rebelled against Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire retaliated with what is known as the Armenian holocaust, killing an estimated 1 million Armenians

Possible Test Question In World War I, it is estimated that _____ soldiers died and _______ were wounded. Three million, ten million Five million, fifteen million Six or seven million, eighteen million Eight or nine million, twenty-two million Twelve million, thirty million

Revolutionary Upheavals in Germany and Austria-Hungary German November revolution of 1918 Series of mutinies & demonstrations German socialists come to power Division of German Socialists Majority favored parliamentary democracy in route to an elimination of capitalism Radicals favored an immediate social revolution Formation of two governments Failure of radicals to achieve control Communists attempt to seize power and are brutally repressed Left a fear of communism that Hitler would build upon Revolution in Austria Ethnic upheaval Formation of independent republics based largely on ethnicity Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, & Yugoslavia

Possible Test Question The German November revolution of 1918 eventually resulted in A parliamentary democracy dominated by the Republicans. The division of Germany among the victorious allies. The creation of a communist state similar to the Soviet Union. The creation of a German Republic with the socialists in power. A return to the divided Germany that existed before Bismarck.

The Peace Settlement Palace of Versailles, January 1919, 27 Allied nations Woodrow Wilson Most important goal in the Paris Peace Conference was to assure acceptance of his Fourteen Points Lloyd George (GB) was determined to make Germany pay Georges Clemenceau of France concerned with his nation’s security Wanted to punish Germany and make sure they could never wage war against France again January 25, 1919, the principle of the League of Nations adopted but United States Senators do will not allow the US to be included

The Treaty of Versailles Five separate treaties (Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire) The most important was the Treaty of Versailles, June 18, 1919 Article 231, War Guilt Clause Forced Germany to pay reparations to GB & France 100,000 man army Eliminate Germany’s air force Restrict the size of Germany’s navy Loss of Alsace and Lorraine Sections of Prussia to the new Polish state Germans were outraged at the “dictated peace” but they had to either accept it or go back to war where they faced defeat

Possible Test Question The feature of the Versailles Treaty that most Germans found very hard to accept was The loss of land that reduced the nation by half. The reductions imposed in the size of the German military. Article 231, the “War Guilt Clause” which imposed heavy war reparations on Germany. The loss of all political sovereignty for a period of twenty years. The loss of Germany’s Latin American empire.

The Other Peace Treaties German and Russian Empires lost territory in eastern Europe WWI resulted in new nation-states in Eastern Europe: Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, and Hungary Romania acquired additional lands from Russia, Hungary, and Bulgaria Compromises will lead to future problems Minorities in every eastern European states Ottoman Empire dismembered Promises of independence of Arab states in the Middle East Mandates (League of Nation term - imperialism) France – Lebanon and Syria Britain – Iraq and Palestine United States Senate rejects the Versailles Peace Treaty

Map 25.5: Europe in 1919

The Middle East in 1919