By Connor Lepper

Heliocentric-based on the belief that the sun is the center of the universe Hypothesis-possible explanation Scientific Method-painstaking method used to confirm findings and prove or disprove a hypothesis Gravity-force that tends to pull one mass or object to another

Until the mid-1500s, European scholars accepted the theory of Ptolemy Ptolemy was a Greek astronomer He taught that Earth was the center of the universe The view not only agreed with common sense but also matched the teachings of the Church Until the 1500s and the 1600s came along and radically changed the way they viewed the physical world

Polish scholar Nicolaus Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres in 1543 He proposed a heliocentric or sun centered model of the universe Most experts rejected this new theory. At the time all scientific knowledge and many religious teachings were developed by classical thinkers. In the late 1500s Tyco Brahe a Danish astronomer provided evidence that supported this theory.

Brahe set up an astronomical observatory For years carefully observed the sky accumulating data about the movements of the heavenly body After his death his assistant the German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler used his data to calculate the orbit of the planets revolving around the sun. Even though his calculations supported Brahe’s theory they showed that they did not orbit in a perfect circle around the sun

He assembled an astronomical telescope He observed the four moons of Jupiter moving slowly around the planet He realized that just like the moons moved around Jupiter saw it was the same movements that Copernicus described His discoveries caused an uproar other scholars attacked him because his observations contradicted the ancient views about the world The Church condemned him because it also contradicted Church teachings that the heavens were fixed, unmoving, and perfect.

Despite the opposition of religious authorities by the early 1600s a new approach to science had emerged It did not rely on authorities like Aristotle or Ptolemy or even the Bible It depended upon observation and experimentation

The new approach to science required scientists to collect and accurately measure data To explain the data scientists used reasoning to propose a logical hypothesis Complex mathematical calculations were used to convert the observations and experiments into scientific laws This step-by-step process became to be known as the scientific method.

1.State the problem 2.Gather information on the problem 3.Form a hypothesis 4.Experiment to test the hypothesis 5.Record and analyze the data 6.State a conclusion 7.Repeat the steps

The scientific was really a revolution in thought Two giants in this revolution were Englishman Francis Bacon and Frenchman Rene Descartes Each devoted himself to the problem of knowledge Both rejected Aristotle’s scientific assumption They also challenged the scholarly traditions of the medieval universities that sought to make the physical world and teachings of the Church They both differed in their methods Bacon stressed experimentation and observations Descartes emphasized human reasoning as the best road to understanding In his Discourse on Method he explains how he decided to discard all traditional authorities and search for provable knowledge. He concluded that the doubter had to exist and ended with his famous statement “I think, therefore I am”

As a student in England Isaac Newton devoured the works of the leading scientists of his day By age 24 he had formed a brilliant theory to explain why the planets moved the way they did One story claims that Newton saw an apple fall from a tree He wondered whether the force that pulled that apple to earth might not also control the movements of the planets In the next 20 years Newton perfected his theory Using math he showed a single force keeps the planets in orbit around the sun He called this force gravity

In 1687 he published Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy The book explained the law of gravity and other workings of the universe Newton argued that nature follows uniform law, all motion in the universe can be measured and described mathematically To many his work seemed to link physics and astronomy together An English poet caught the spirit of what would be later called the Newtonian revolution “Nature and Nature’s Laws lay hid in night, God said, Let Newton be! and all was light.” -Alexander Pope, Epitaphs For over 200 years his laws held fast But in the early1900s startling new theories of the universe called some of Newton’s ideas into question Yet his laws of motion and mechanics still has practical uses

The 1500s and the 1600s saw breakthroughs in many branches of science Some of the most significant advances were seen in chemistry and medicine

Chemistry slowly freed itself from the magical notions of medieval alchemists They believed that they could turn ordinary metals into gold In the 1600s Robert Boyle distinguished between individual elements and chemical compounds He also explained the effect of temperature and pressure on gases His work opened the way to modern chemical analysis and the composition of matter

Medieval physicians relied on the ancient works of Galen However he made many errors in part because he had limited knowledge of human anatomy During the Renaissance artists and physicians made new efforts to study the human body Andreas Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body in 1543 It was the first accurate and detailed study of human anatomy Ambroise Pare a French physician developed a new and more effective ointment for preventing infection He also developed a technique for stitching up wounds William Harvey an English scholar described the circulation of blood in the body He described the function of the heart, veins, and arteries Later in the century Antony van Leeuwenhoek a Dutch inventor perfected the first microscope

The rapid advance in science and technology that started in the 1500s still continues on Thinkers like Bacon, Descartes, and Newton applied the scientific method to the pursuit of knowledge Their work encouraged others to search for scientific laws governing their universe Such ideas opened the way to the Enlightenment of the 1700s

Nicolaus Copernicus- scholar believed the sun was the center of the Universe “Heliocentric” Issac Newton- English scientist discovered “named” for force of Gravity Galileo Galilei- created the first astronomical telescope, charged with heresy for his beliefs

What idea did Copernicus propose? Heliocentric Which philosopher stressed the use of experiments and observation for knowledge? - Bacon Who stated “I think therefore I am”.- Descartes