The EU as least bad compromise Professor Beatrice Heuser University of Reading

The problem I HOW TO RESOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING CLASHES OF INTERESTS The State solution: Elected Government Checks and Balances – accountability and état de droit

Checks and balances

The same problem in IR I.Many sovereign states: balance of power politics changing alliances security dilemma wars II.One empire: danger of a tyranny no hope of rescue from abroad.

Examples of European Empires TYRANNICAL/EXPANSIONIST Persian Empire Alexander’s Empire (Roman Empire) Islamic Caliphate Charlemagne’s Empire Mongol Empire Ottoman Empire Russian Empire Napoleon’s Empire Hitler’s “Third” Empire Stalin’s Empire BENIGN – with internal checks and balances & conflict settlement mechanisms Roman Republic (+/-) Holy Roman Empire EEC/EU

Models for Inter-state relations in Europe EMPIRE Pax Augusta/Romana: – Succession crises/Civil War – Aggression from without Holy Roman Empire (post-expansionist phase) – Succession crises – Competition with papacy – Religious strife – Aggression from without BALANCE BETWEEN (sovereign) STATES Ancient Greece MA: Sovereign monarchies vs. Holy Roman Empire Italian city states Early modern: Sovereign monarchies vs. Holy Roman Empire + religious strife Late modern: states in nationalist competition

Britain’s traditional role* The (counter-)balancer “The British Way of War” (Basil Liddel Hart) * Real or supposed – for a contrary view see Michael Howard: The Continental Commitment (1989)

Other compromises Concert of Europe (the “Conference System”) founders on nationalist interests of all parties League of Nations – founders on absence of superpower guarantor (USA), – absence of strong law-enforcement mechanism UN – paralysed if P5 disagreement; – dominated by P5 interests

Mix between State and inter-state order: Holy Roman Empire: – Checks and balances between component entities (electors & their states, other entities), imperial Diet, emperor, church, judiciary – Conflict resolution mechanisms European Economic Communities/ European Union: – Checks and balances between component entities (state governments), European parliament, European court of justice, European Commission. – Conflict resolution mechanisms.

Problems: HRE: – External threats – Internal religious strife (emperor vs pope, Catholic vs Protestant) – Foundered on clashes of political values (Fr Rev & Napo vs. monarchy) EU: – Instability and wars around its frontiers & in rest of world (Yugo, Ukraine, Middle East, …) – Religious strife replaced by secularism (laïcité) – Clashes over political values replaced by similar democracies

In short: The EU is the best compromise solution for internal conflict resolution. For its external protection, however, it continues to depend on NATO (& thus USA). UK’s role since 1945: UK as lynchpin between NATO and EU