ANTICHOLINESTERASES Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme that specifically cleaves acetylcholine to acetate and choline. It is located both pre-and post-synaptically in the nerve terminal, where it is membrane bound. Inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase indirectly provide a cholinergic action by prolonging the lifetime of acetylcholine produced endogenously at the cholinergic nerve endings. This results in the accumulation of acetylcholine in the synaptic space. These drugs can thus provoke a response at all cholinoceptors in the body, including both muscarinic and nicotinic receptors of the autonomic nervous system as well as the neuromuscular junction and the brain.

Mechanism of action of anticholinesterases

Physostigmine Physostigmine is an alkaloid (a nitrogenous compound found in plants) and a tertiary amine. It is a substrate for acetylcholinesterase, and forms a relatively stable enzyme-substrate intermediate that reversibly inactivates acetylcholinesterase. The result is potentiation of cholinergic activity throughout the body. Actions: Physostigmine has a wide range of actions because it stimulates not only muscarinic and nicotinic sites of the autonomic nervous system but also the nicotinic receptors of the neuromuscular junction. Its duration of action is about 2-4 hours. Physostigmine can enter and stimulate the CNS.

Therapeutic uses: The drug increases intestinal and bladder motility, which serve as its therapeutic action in atony of either organ. Placed topically in the eye, it produces miosis and spasm of accommodation and a lowering of intraocular pressure. It is used to treat glaucoma, but pilocarpine is more effective. Physostigmine is also used in the treatment of overdoses of drugs with anticholinergic actions such as atropine, phenothiazines, and tricyclic antidepressants. Adverse effects: The effects of physostigmine on the CNS may lead to convulsions when high doses are used. Bradycardia may also occur. Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase at the skeletal neuromuscular junction causes the accumulation of acetylcholine and ultimately results in paralysis of skeletal muscle. However, these effects are rarely seen with therapeutic doses.

Neostigmine Neostigmine is a synthetic compound that reversibly inhibits acetylcholinesterase as does physostigmine. Unlike physostigmine, neostigmine is more polar and therefore does not enter the CNS. Its effect on skeletal muscle is greater than that of physostigmine, and it can stimulate contractility before it paralyzes. Neostigmine has a moderate duration of action, usually 2-4 hours. It is used to stimulate the bladder and GI tract, and is also used as an antidote for tubocurarine and other competitive neuromuscular blocking agents. Neostigmine has found use in symptomatic treatment of myasthenia gravis, an autoimmune disease caused by antibodies to the nicotinic receptor that bind to the acetylcholine receptors of neuromuscular junctions. This causes their degradation, and thus makes fewer receptors available for interaction with the neurotransmitter.

Adverse effects of neostigmine include the actions of generalized cholinergic stimulation, such as salivation, flushing, decreased blood pressure, nausea, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and bronchospasm. Pyridostigmine: Pyridostigmine is another cholinesterase inhibitor that is used in the chronic management of myasthenia gravis. Its duration of action (3-6 hours) is longer than that of neostigmine (2-4 hours). Edrophonium The actions of edrophonium are similar to those of neostigmine, except that it is more rapidly absorbed and has a short duration of action (10-20 minutes). Edrophonium is a quarternary amine and is used in the diagnosis of myasthenia gravis. Intravenous injection of edrophonium leads to a rapid increase in muscle strength. Care must be taken since excess drug may provoke a cholinergic crisis. Atropine is the antidote.

A number of synthetic organophosphate compounds have the capacity to bind covalently to acetylcholinesterase. The result is a long lasting increase in acetylcholine at all sites where it is released. Many of these drugs are extremely toxic and were developed by the military as nerve agents. Related compounds such as parathion are employed as insecticides. Isoflurophate Mechanism of action: Isoflurophate (diisopropylfluorophosphate, DFP) is an organophosphate that covalently binds to a serine-OH at the active site of acetylcholinesterase. Once this occurs, the enzyme is permanently inactivated, and restoration of acetylcholinesterase activity requires the synthesis of new enzyme molecules. Following covalent modification of acetylcholinesterase, the phosphorylated enzyme slowly releases one of its isopropyl groups.

The loss of an alkyl group, which is called, aging, makes it impossible for chemical reactivators, such as pralidoxime, to break the bond between the remaining drug and the enzyme. Newer nerve agents, available to the military, age in minutes or seconds. DFP ages in 6-8 hours.

Actions: Actions include generalized cholinergic stimulation, paralysis of motor function (causing breathing difficulties), and convulsions. Isoflurophate produces intense miosis and thus has found therapeutic use. Atropine in high dosage can reverse many of the muscarinic and central effects of isoflurophate. Therapeutic uses: An ophthalmic ointment of the drug is used topically in the eye for the chronic treatment of open-angle glaucoma. The effects may last for up to one week after a single administration. [Note: Echothiophate is a newer drug that covalently bonds to acetylcholinesterase. Its use is the same as isoflurophate.]