Social Interaction Chapter 21

Group Behavior How people behave as part of a group often differs from how they behave as individuals

Social Facilitation Refers to the concept that people often perform better when other people are watching Presence of others may improve performance due to evaluation apprehension, or the concern about the opinion of others. Evaluation apprehension may motivate people to try harder in order to impress others.

Social Loafing Refers to members of a group tending to slack off when working together for a common goal. Social loafing may occur due to diffusion of responsibility, or the tendency for members of a group to feel less responsible for accomplishing a task when the effort is shared among the group.

Risky Shift The tendency for people to take greater risks as part of a group than they would as individuals. People may feel more powerful or less vulnerable as part of a group.

Group Decision Making Many important decisions are made by groups rather than individuals. Psychologist shave identified a number of social decision schemes, or rules that govern group decision making.

Majority-Wins Scheme Group comes to agreement on a decision that was initially supported by a majority of group members. Most often applies to situations in which there are no right or wrong answers.

Truth-Wins Scheme Members of a group come to realize that one option is clearly better than the others.

Two-Thirds Majority Scheme Groups concur with a decision after two thirds of their members come to an agreement about the correct choice.

First-Shift Scheme Applies to groups that are deadlocked If one person changes his or her mind, the others may follow and shift their vote.

Polarization Members of a group often share similar attitudes The shared attitudes that group members hold are likely to grow stronger, or more extreme, through time. Polarization can be positive or negative (prejudice example).

Group Leadership Leaders often differ in how they operate. Leaders may fit into authoritarian, democratic, or laissez- faire categories.

Authoritarian Leaders Absolute control over group. Give orders, expect orders to be carried out without questioning.

Democratic Leaders Encourage groups member to express and discuss ideas and to make their own decisions. Consensus builders Will often follow the vote of the majority

Laissez-Faire Leaders Encourage group to express and explore own ideas. Leader takes a less active role in the process, gives minimal feedback. Allows group to dictate decisions, even if they seem to be poor.

Section 2: Conformity Conform: modify one’s attitudes and behavior to make them consistent with those of other people.

Importance of Groups Groups could be, for example, friends, those in a school extracurricular activity or members of a family. Groups can fulfill our needs for belonging, affection and attention. Groups also offer support when we are facing tough times in our lives or difficult situations. Groups may also help us in accomplishing a task by dividing up the workload.

Social Norms Refers to the standards that people share regarding behavior in a given situation. Tell you what is appropriate to wear to school, church, a wedding, or around the house on a Sunday afternoon. Social norms can be explicit or implicit. Explicit norms are spoken or written rules. Example: speed limit. Implicit norms are unspoken, unwritten rules. Example: What to wear in a given situation.

Asch’s Studies of Conformity Psychologist Solomon Asch wanted to know to what extent people will conform to social norms. When study participants were faced with a question with an obvious answer but accompanied by other participants who gave the wrong answer, 75% of participants went against their own judgment at least once and conformed to the rest of the group.

Why Do People Conform? Factors may include: Cultural Influences: some cultures, particularly those of many Asian countries, the group is valued over the individual. Need for Acceptance: people desire to be liked or accepted by others. Other Factors: when there is a unanimous viewpoint held in a group, it is often tough for others to go against everyone, however when there is not unanimity, it may not be as difficult. Example: Asch experiment.

3. Obedience Necessary to protect safety and community Has led to people following terrible orders: Nazis/Jews, Serbs/Muslims, Turks/Armenians

Milgram’s Studies of Obedience Yale psychologists, studies from 60s and 70s Influenced by Holocaust Wanted to determine bounds of obedience to authority, how we react to commands, etc.

Procedure Ads for participants in newspaper Only men solicited, 40, age Supposed to be a study on learning, effects of punishment on memory Told volunteers split into teachers and learners, really only teachers Learner had to memorize word pairs If correct answer given, nothing, if wrong answer, shocks administered, increasing in voltage with each mistake Teachers given sample shock, 45 volts, not harmful, but unpleasant Told they could quit at any time, but when hesitant, pushed continue by researcher in room

Results At 300 volts, learners pounded on wall, screamed in pain, 35 of 40 teachers continued 9 teachers quit between 300 and 450 volts Approximately 2/3 gave shocks up to 450 volts Teachers showed great stress (sweating, stuttered, nervous laughter, told researcher they wanted to stop, etc.) Experiment repeated with women, college students In each case, at least half went all the way to 450 volts

Why do People Obey? Socialization – taught from childhood to obey authority figures Foot - in- the- Door Effect – tendency to give in to major demands once given in to minor ones Ex. Small shocks lead to large shocks Ex. Soldiers trained to follow small orders, more likely to follow life and death orders in combat Confusion About Attitudes – chaotic environment (screaming, pounding on wall) makes it more likely for people to be confused about their own beliefs than in a serene setting Buffers – when buffered, people more likely to follow hurtful, immoral orders, than when personally confronted with recipient Ex. Current military conflict often happens at distance, may be easier to kill from distance than up close, hand to hand combat

4. Aggression Words or actions meant to hurt others Why are we aggressive? Views: biological, psychoanalytical, cognitive, sociocultural

Biological View Much of social behavior is genetic Aggression help people survive, reproduce Aggressive humans historically more likely to survive, pass on genes

Psychoanalytic View Freud viewed aggression as natural response to frustrations of daily life Thought people feared hurting others, thus repressed them Encouraged venting aggressive impulses, or catharsis Ex. Watching aggressive sports Studies have found it unclear whether catharsis decreases or increases aggressive tendencies

Cognitive View Aggression not influenced by: biological tendencies, repressed urges Aggression is influenced by: values, perception, choices Implies choice trumps biology, subconscious forces

Learning View People learn to repeat behaviors that are reinforced Violent acts may create positive results for perpetrator (control over others, respect of peers, etc.)

Sociocultural View Argue some cultures encourage independence and competitiveness May promote aggression Children in communal cultures such as Thailand/Jamaica less aggressive than children in US