IEEE 1058 SPMP l Project summary Purpose, scope and objectives Assumptions and constraints Project deliverables Schedule and budget summary Evolution of the plan l References l Definitions l Project organization External interfaces Internal structure Roles and responsibilities

IEEE 1058 SPMP l Managerial process plans Start-up plan Estimation plan Staffing plan Resource acquisition plan Project staff training plan Work plan Work activities Schedule allocation Resource allocation Budget allocation Control plan Requirements control plan Schedule control plan Budget control plan Quality control plan Reporting plan Metrics collection plan Risk management plan Closeout plan

IEEE 1058 SPMP l Technical process plans Process model Methods, tools and techniques Infrastructure plan Product acceptance plan l Supporting process plans Configuration management plan Verification and validation plan Documentation plan Quality assurance plan Reviews and audits Problem resolution plan Subcontractor management plan Process improvement plan l Additional plans The SQAP is a sub-document of the SPMP

Theories of Management

CLASSICALTHEORIESCLASSICALTHEORIES SCIENTIFICMANAGEMENTSCIENTIFICMANAGEMENT

Taylor’s 4 Principles of Scientific Management l Scientifically study each part of a task and develop the best method for performing the task l Carefully select workers and train them to perform the task by using the scientifically developed method

Taylor’s 4 Principles of Scientific Management l Cooperate fully with workers to ensure that they use the proper method l Divide work and responsibility so that management is responsible for planning work methods using scientific principles and workers are responsible for executing the work accordingly

Theories of Management BEHAVIOURALTHEORIESBEHAVIOURALTHEORIES HAWTHORNESTUDIESHAWTHORNESTUDIES

Behavioural Theories Emphasise the importance of attempting to understand the various factors that affect human behaviour in organisations.

The Hawthorne Studies A group of studies conducted at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company during the late 1920’s and early 1930’s

Hawthorne Studies Researchers monitored the productivity of five women who assembled electrical relays for several years.

Theories of Management BEHAVIOURALTHEORIESBEHAVIOURALTHEORIES HUMANRELATIONSHUMANRELATIONS

MaslowsHierarchy of Needs Basic Needs Safety & Security Needs SocialNeeds SelfEsteem SelfActualisation

Theory X & Theory Y Theory X l The average person dislikes work and will try to avoid it. l Most people need to be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened with punishment to get them to work towards organisational goals. l The average person WANTS to be directed, shuns responsibility, has little ambition, and seeks security above all.

Theory X & Theory Y Theory Y l Most people do not inherently dislike work; it is seen as natural as recreation and rest. l People will exercise self-direction and self- control to reach goals to which they are committed. l Commitment to goals is a function of the rewards available; particularly esteem and self- actualisation needs.

Theory X & Theory Y Theory Y l When conditions are favourable, the average person learns not only to accept responsibility, but also to seek it. l Many people have the capacity to exercise a high degree of creativity and innovation in solving organisation problems. l The intellectual potential of most individuals is only partially utilised in most organisations.

Theories of Management QUANTITATIVETHEORIESQUANTITATIVETHEORIES MANAGEMENTINFORMATIONSYSTEMSMANAGEMENTINFORMATIONSYSTEMS

Management Information Systems Focuses on designing and implementing computer-based information systems for use by management. These systems turn raw data into information that is useful to various levels of management.

Theories of Management CONTEMPORARYTHEORIESCONTEMPORARYTHEORIES SYSTEMSTHEORYSYSTEMSTHEORY

Systems Theory Based on the idea that organisations can be visualised as systems System A set of interrelated parts that operate as a whole in pursuit of common goals

Systems Theory Developed through the sciences of Biology and Physical Science

InputsTransformationProcessesOutputs Feedback from Environment Resources HumanHuman MaterialsMaterials EquipmentEquipment FinanceFinance InformationInformationAbilities PlanningPlanning OrganisingOrganising LeadingLeading ControlControl TechnologyTechnology Outcomes ProductsProducts ServicesServices Profit & LossesProfit & Losses Employee Growth & SatisfactionEmployee Growth & Satisfaction

Open vs. Closed Systems Closed System A system that does little or no interacting with its environment and receives little feedback Open System A system that operates in continual interaction with its environment

Theories of Management CONTEMPORARYTHEORIESCONTEMPORARYTHEORIES CONTINGENCYTHEORYCONTINGENCYTHEORY

Contingency Theory A viewpoint that argues that appropriate managerial action depends on the circumstances of the situation. In other words ……….. there is no single right way to manage

Contingency TheoryUniversalManagementPrincipals Contingency View Appropriatemanagerial action depends on situation Situation A Situation B Situation C

What should a Manager be? A Leader

Leadership Think of a person who you consider a leader What traits (attributes, characteristics) can you identify as central to their leadership?

Leadership l Drive l Leadership Motivation l Integrity l Self-confidence l Knowledge of the Business

Central to effective leadership is ……………….. INFLUENCE …….. that is, the ability to influence other people

Influence Authority Control over Rewards Punishments AppealingPersonalCharacteristics Expertise Sources of Power

Legitimate Influence Power that stems from a position’s placement in the managerial hierarchy and the authority vested in the position.

Reward Influence Power that is based on the capacity to control and provide valued rewards to others.

Coercive Influence Power that depends on the ability to punish others when they do not engage in desired behaviour.

Expert Influence Power that is based on the possession of expertise that is valued by others.

Information Influence Power that results from access to and control over the distribution of important information about organisational operations and future plans.

Referent Influence Power that results from being admired, personally identified with, or liked by others.

Management Styles The type of power, and the way it is used, by a manager will be greatly influenced the the type of management style he/she chooses to use.

Early Theories Of Motivation (cont’d) l Motivation-Hygiene theory (Herzberg) intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and extrinsic factors are related to job dissatisfaction Hygiene factors  Factors, such as working conditions and salary, that, when adequate, may eliminate job dissatisfaction but do not necessarily increase job satisfaction Motivators  Factors, such as recognition and growth, that increase job satisfaction

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory EXHIBIT 10.4

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction- Dissatisfaction EXHIBIT 10.5

Contemporary Theories Of Motivation l Three-needs theory (McClelland) The needs for achievement, power, and affiliation are major motives in work Need for achievement (nAch): the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. Need for power (nPow): The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. Need for affiliation (nAff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

Contemporary Theories Of Motivation (cont’d) l Equity theory (Adams) Employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then compare their input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratios of relevant others. A CONCERN WITH FAIRNESS

Contemporary Theories Of Motivation: Equity Theory (cont’d) l Referent In equity theory, the other persons, the systems, or the personal experiences against which individuals compare themselves to assess equity. The choice of a particular set of referents is related to the information available about referents as well as to the perceived relevance.

Equity Theory Relationships EXHIBIT 10.6 EMPLOYEE’S ASSESSMENT Inequity (underrewarded) Equity Inequity (overrewarded) *Person A is the employee, and Person B is a relevant other or referent.

Equity Theory l When employees perceive an inequity they may: Distort either their own or others’ inputs or outcomes. Behave so as to induce others to change their inputs or outcomes. Behave so as to change their own inputs or outcomes. Choose a different comparison referent. Quit their job.

Equity Theory Prepositions l If paid according to time, overrewarded employees will produce more than equitably paid employees. l If paid according to quantity of production, overrewarded employees will produce fewer but higher- quality units than equitably paid employees. l If paid according to time, underrewarded employees will produce less or poorer-quality output. l If paid according to quantity of production, under- rewarded employees will produce a large number of low- quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees. EXHIBIT 10.7

Job Design And Motivation l Job characteristics model (JCM) Hackman and Oldham’s job description model: The five core job dimensions are skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Internal rewards are obtained when: An employee learns (knowledge of results) through feedback) that he or she personally (experienced responsibility through autonomy of work) has performed well on a task that he or she cares about (experienced meaningfulness through skill variety, task identity, and/or task significance).

Core Job Dimensions l Skill variety The degree to which the job requires a variety of activities so the worker can use a number of different skills and talents l Task identity The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work l Task significance The degree to which the job affects the lives or work of other people

Core Job Dimensions (cont’d) l Autonomy The degree to which the job provides freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out l Feedback The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual’s obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance

The Job Characteristics Model EXHIBIT 11.8 Source: J. R. Hackman, “Work Design,” in J. R. Hackman and J. L. Suttle, eds., Improving Life at Work (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1977), p.129.

Guidelines for Job Redesign EXHIBIT 10.9 Source: J. R. Hackman and J. L. Suttle eds., Improving Life at Work (Glenview. IL: Scott. Foresman. 1977). With permission of the authors.

Expectancy theory (Vroom) l A comprehensive theory of motivation that an individual tends to act in a certain way, in the expectation that the act will be followed by given outcome, and according to the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. The extent to which individuals are motivated to perform to get a reward of value to them is based on their belief that their performance will result in the reward they want.

Expectancy theory (Vroom) l Emphasizes self interest in the alignment of rewards with employee wants. l Addresses why employees view certain outcomes (rewards) as attractive or unattractive. l Emphasizes the connections among expected behaviors, rewards, and organizational goals. l Is concerned with individual perceptions and the provision of feedback.

Expectancy Relationships (Linkages) l Effort–performance The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance l Performance–reward The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome l Attractiveness The importance placed on the potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job.

Simplified Expectancy Theory EXHIBIT Training and development Performance appraisal system Human resources management

Integrating Theories of Motivation EXHIBIT 10.11

Flexibility: The Key To Motivating A Diverse Workforce l Recognizing the different personal needs and goals of individuals l Providing a diversity of rewards to match the varied needs of employees l Being flexible in accommodating the cultural differences within a diverse workforce when attempting to motivate workers.

Motivation and Compensation l Pay-for-performance programs Compensation plans such as piece-rate plans, profit sharing, and the like that pay employees on the basis of performance measures not directly related to time spent on the job.

Compensation Alternatives l Competency-based compensation A program that pays and rewards employees on the basis of skills, knowledge, or behaviors they possess l Broad-banding Pre-set pay level, based on the degree to which competencies exist and allow an employee to contribute to the organization. l Stock options A program that allows employees to purchase company stock at a fixed price and profit when company performance increases its stock value.

Work-Life Balance: Alternative Work Schedules l Flextime A scheduling option that allows employees select what their work hours will be within some specified parameters. l Job sharing A type part-time work that allows two or more workers to split a traditional 40-hour-a-week job l Telecommuting A system of working at home on a computer that is linked to the office

Employee Empowerment: How Entrepreneurs Motivate Employees l Giving employees power by: Allowing them to complete the whole job. Having employees work together across departments and functions in the organization. Using participative decision making in which employees provide input into decisions. Delegating decisions and duties, turning over the responsibility for carrying them out to employees. Redesigning their jobs so they have discretion over the way they do their work.

Generational Issues in Motivation l Why important to consider? l How to develop cross-generational understanding of motivational differences? l Motivation considerations Use of time Work-Life Balance Identification with work Others?